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Annals of the Association of American Geographers Volume 66, 1976 - Issue 4
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ARTICLE

THE COLLAPSE OF FRONTIER FARMING IN ALASKAFootnote∗

JAMES R. SHORTRIDGE Assistant Professor of Geography, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 66045
Pages 583-604 | Published online: 15 Mar 2010

  • ∗ I wish to acknowledge the critical advice of Walter M. Kollmorgen during the preparation of this paper and the larger work from which it is drawn.
  • 1 The maximum was recorded in 1940. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940. Agriculture. Territories and Possessions, p. 13.
  • 2 Karl E. Francis, “Outpost Agriculture: the Case of Alaska,”Geographical Review, Vol. 57 (1967), pp. 496 505; Burke G. Vanderhill, “Perspectives on Alaskan Agriculture,”Journal of Geography, Vol. 72 (1973), pp. 38 52. A more balanced treatment, though focusing primarily on the Matanuska colony of the 1930s, is Orlando Miller, The Frontier in Alaska and the Matanuska Colony (New Haven: Yale University 1975).
  • 3 See Clifford B. Anderson, “The Metamorphosis of American Agrarian Idealism in the 1920s and 1930s,”Agricultural History, Vol. 35 (1961), pp. 182 88.
  • 4 Quoted in Herbert Hilscher, “66-Day Barley in Alaska,”The Rotarian, Vol. 69, No. 12 (Dec. 1946), pp. 18–19. See also Ernest Gruening, “Let's End Alaska Climythology,”Bulletin, American Meteorological Society, Vol. 43 (1962), pp. 533–38.
  • 5 The origin and persistence of overly negative appraisals of the Alaskan climate is explored in James R. Shortridge, “American Perceptions of the Agricultural Potential of Alaska: 1867–1958,” unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, 1972, pp. 35–43.
  • 6 S. A. Wilde and H. H. Krause, “Soil-Forest Types of the Yukon and Tanana Valleys in Subarctic Alaska,”Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 11 (1960), pp. 266 79; reference on p. 267.
  • 7 Charles E. Kellogg and Iver Nygard, Exploratory Study of the Principal Soil Groups of Alaska, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Monograph No. 7 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 124.
  • 8 Wilde and Krause, op. cit., footnote 6, p. 271. Detailed studies are available from the U. S. Soil Conservation Service for the four principal farming areas in the state. They are: Samuel Rieger and R. Eugene Wunderlich, Soil Survey and Vegetation of Northeastern Kodiak Island Area, Alaska, Series 1956. No. 17 (1960); Samuel Rieger, G. W. Allen, A. D. Backer, E. G. Link, and B. B. Lovell, Soil Survey of Kenai-Kasilof Area, Alaska, Series 1958, No. 20 (1962); Samuel Rieger, James A. Demont, and Dupree Sanders, Soil Survey of Fairbanks Area, Alaska. Series 1959, No. 25 (1963); and Dale B. Schoephorster, Soil Survey of Matanuska Valley Area, Alaska (1968).
  • 9 Seymour Hadwen and Lane J. Palmer, Reindeer in Alaska, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 1089 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922), p. 21.
  • 10 George A. Llano, “Utilization of Lichens in the Arctic and Subarctic,”Economic Botany, Vol. 10 (1956), pp. 367 92; map on p. 369.
  • 11 The 150,000 figure is from Hadwen and Palmer, op. cit., footnote 9, p. 20; the 350,000 figure is from Carl J. Lomen, “Reindeer as a Source of Food,”Scientific American, Vol. 141 (1929), pp. 104 18; reference on p. 106. Lomen was the leading reindeer owner in Alaska during the 1920s and the man most responsible for the industry's commercialization.
  • 12 The acreage estimate (the only one available) is from C. V. Piper, Grasslands of the South Alaska Coast, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 82 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1905), p. 9.
  • 13 G. W. Gasser, “The Grasses of Alaska,”Proceedings, Third Alaskan Science Conference, 1952 (College, Alaska: Univ. of Alaska, 1954), pp. 46–51; William W. Mitchell, “Composition and Yield of Native Grasslands and Some Inherent Problems Pertinent to their Use”—Abstract, Proceedings, Seventeenth Alaska Science Conference, 1966 (College: University of Alaska, 1966), p. 76.
  • 14 Edith Fitton, “The Climates of Alaska,”Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 58 (March 1930), pp. 85 103; reference on p. 85.
  • 15 For a more complete discussion of Alaskan climatology than is sketched here see Fitton, op. cit., footnote 14; Murray Mitchell, Jr., “The Weather and Climate of Alaska,”Weatherwise, Vol. 11 (1958), pp. 151 60; and Harold W. Searby, Climates of the States: Alaska, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Environmental Science Services Administration (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1968).
  • 16 Jen-hu Chang, “Potential Photosynthesis and Crop Productivity,”Annals, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 60 (1970), pp. 92–101; map on p. 95.
  • 17 Josiah Strong, Our Country: its Possible Future and its Present Crisis (New York: Baker and Taylor, 1885), p. 153; James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. 2, new edition (New York: Macmillan, 1921), p. 913; William J. Trimble, “The Influence of the Passing of the Public Lands,”The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 113 (1914), pp. 755 67.
  • 18 Alfred H. Brooks, Blazing Alaska's Trails, B. L. Fryxell, ed. (College: University of Alaska and Arctic Institute of North America, 1953), p. 343.
  • 19 C. C. Georgeson, “The Possibilities of Alaska,”National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 13 (1902), pp. 81 85; reference on p. 81.
  • 20 Walter E. Clark, “Farming in Alaska,”Sunset: the Pacific Monthly, Vol. 24 (1910), pp. 495 502; reference on p. 495.
  • 21 C. C. Georgeson, Fourth Report on the Agricultural Investigations in Alaska, 1900, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 94 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), p. 67.
  • 22 John G. Brady, “Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska,” in Annual Report of the Department of the Interior, House Doc. 5 of the 58th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1903, p. 20.
  • 23 William B. Stephenson, Jr., The Land of Tomorrow (New York: George H. Doran, 1919), pp. 57–58. For similar views see Brooks, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 457; and Hugh H. Bennett, “Report on a Reconnaissance of the Soils, Agriculture, and Other Resources of the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska,” in Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1916, U. S. Department of Agriculture (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1921), pp. 39–174, especially pp. 139–40.
  • 24 Scott C. Bone, Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1924), p. 33; U. S. Department of the Interior, General Information Regarding the Territory of Alaska (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1927), p. 76.
  • 25 U. S. General Land Office, Annual Report of the Commissioner: 1930, p. 50; U. S. General Land Office, Annual Report of the Commissioner: 1931, p. 13.
  • 26 Scott C. Bone, Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1921), p. 41. See also Andrew J. Stone, “The Natural Resources of Alaska,”The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, Vol. 100 (1920), pp. 841 48; Agriculture in Alaska,”Science, Vol. 52 (July 30, 1920), pp. 101 02; and A. H. Pulver, “Alaska as a Food Producer,”The Rural New Yorker, Vol. 79 (1920), p. 1854.
  • 27 Gilbert H. Grosvenor, “Reindeer in Alaska,”The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 14 (1903), pp. 127 48; reference on pp. 127, 147–48.
  • 28 Emil E. Hurja, “Alaska, the World's Meat Shop,”The Overland Monthly, Vol. 63 (1914), pp. 120 25; The Reindeer Revolution,”The Independent, Vol. 77 (1914), p. 163; and Francis J. Dickie, “The T-Bone of Tomorrow,”Sunset: the Pacific Monthly, Vol. 43, No. 6 (Dec. 1919), pp. 41–42, 92.
  • 29 On prices and taste see E. W. Nelson, “What Reindeer Mean to the United States,”Weekly News Letter (of the U. S. Department of Agriculture), Vol. 8, No. 26 (Jan. 26, 1921), p. 9, and Jean Bunnell, “The Alaska Reindeer Industry,”Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 21 (1929), pp. 17 20; on distributorships see Carl J. Lomen, Fifty Years in Alaska (New York: David McKay Co., 1954), p. 90; the herd estimate is from Bone, op. cit., footnote 24. p. 43; the Smith quotation is from his “The Reindeer Industry in America: A Study of a New Industry and also of the Origins of Geographic Error,” The Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. 40 (1924), pp. 74–88; reference on p. 84.
  • 30 U. S. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930, Outlying Territories and Possessions, p. 29.
  • 31 Robert E. Riegel, “American Frontier Theory,”Journal of World History, Vol. 3 (1956), pp. 356 80.
  • 32 W. P. Richardson, “What Ails Alaska?,”Current History, Vol. 14 (1921), pp. 960 68; Why Alaska is Being Rapidly Depopulated,”Current Opinion, Vol. 72 (1922), pp. 408 09; Theodore M. Knappen, “Will Alaska Secede?” (in his column “The West in Washington”), Sunset: the Pacific Monthly, Vol. 50 (1923), pp. 47–48.
  • 33 U. S. General Land Office, Annual Report of the Commissioner: 1909, p. 46.
  • 34 U. S. Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, Homesteads in Alaska, Report No. 569 of the 56th Cong., 1st Sess., 1900, p. 1; U. S. Congress, House, Committee on the Public Lands, Homesteads in Alaska, Report No. 778 of the 57th Cong., 1st Sess., 1902, p. 1.
  • 35 Franklin W. Burch, “Alaska's Railroad Frontier: Railroads and Federal Development Policy, 1898-1915” unpublished doctoral dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1965, pp. 74–108.
  • 36 A. S. Atkinson, “Arctic Railroading,”The Railroad Gazette, Vol. 35 (1918), p. 818.
  • 37 Frederick H. Chase, “Alaska's Railroad Development,”The American Review of Reviews, Vol. 38 (1908), pp. 693 99: reference on p. 694. See also Harrington Emerson, “Opening of the Alaska Territory,”The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 14 (1903). pp. 99 106.
  • 38 James L. Penick, Progressive Politics and Conservation. The Ballinger-Pinechot Affair (Chicago: University of Chicago 1968).
  • 39 Burch, op. cit., footnote 35, p. 203.
  • 40 Ralph S. Tarr, “The Alaskan Problem,”The North American Review, Vol. 195 (1912), pp. 40 55; references on pp. 40, 43. For similar views see Sherman Rogers, “Alaska, the Misunderstood,”The Outlook, Vol. 132 (1922), pp. 608 12; Alaska and the Press Agents,”Hampton's Magazine, Vol. 26 (1911), pp. 659 60; C. L. Andrews, “Agriculture in Alaska,”The Alaska-Yukon Magazine, Vol. 12 (1911), pp. 352 56; and Charles R. Tuttle, Alaska: its Meaning to the World (Seattle: Franklin Shuey and Co., 1914), p. 23.
  • 41 U. S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary: 1913, p. 6.
  • 42 This is not to say that the coal issue was not an important one in curtailing Alaskan development. The willingness of Americans to pioneer declined greatly between 1906 and the 1920s. Had the coal lands remained open in 1906 and the private railroad building continued as expected, Alaska may well have received a sizable immigration of rural settlers in the 1906-1914 period.
  • 43 Thomas Riggs, Jr., “Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska,” in Annual Report of the Department of the Interior, Vol. 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1918), pp. 509–82; reference on p. 509.
  • 44 The 1930 census reported only 28,640 whites in Alaska.
  • 45 U. S. Department of the Interior, Annual Report of the Secretary: 1921, p. 7; Scott C. Bone, “The Land that Uncle Sam Bought and then Forgot,”The American Review of Reviews, Vol. 65 (1922), pp. 402 10.
  • 46 George A. Parks, Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931), p. 111.
  • 47 Lawrence J. Palmer, Progress Reindeer Grazing Investigation in Alaska, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Department Bulletin 1423 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926), p. 29.
  • 48 “Competition from Alaska,”The Producer: the National Livestock Monthly, Vol. 12 (Jan. 1931), p. 17.
  • 49 “Reindeer Meat,”The Producer: the National Livestock Monthly, Vol. 11 (March 1930), pp. 19–20; reference on p. 20. See also Lyman S. Brewster, “Reindeer in Alaska,”The American Cattle Producer, Vol. 16 (May 1935), pp. 3 6; for the story of the reindeer men see Lomen, op. cit., footnote 29, p. 213, and Vilhjalmur Stefansson, “Alaska: American Outpost No. 4,”Harper's Magazine, Vol. 183 (1941), pp. 83 92.
  • 50 U. S. Congress, House, Committee on the Territories, Reindeer Industry in Alaska, Report No. 1188 of the 75 Cong., 1st Sess., 1937.
  • 51 The figures are from Ernest Gruening, Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1940), p. 47; Ernest Gruening, Annual Report of the Governor of Alaska (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1945), p. 24: and Margaret Lantis, “The Reindeer Industry in Alaska,”Arctic, Vol. 3 (1950), pp. 27 44; reference on p. 38. Since 1949 the diminished reindeer numbers have remained relatively constant. For the more recent history of the industry see J. Sonnenfeld, “An Arctic Reindeer Industry: Growth and Decline,”Geographical Review, Vol. 49 (1959), pp. 76 94; and Virginia Kraft, “Reindeer Find a Santa Claus,”Sports Illustrated, Vol. 25 (Dec. 12, 1966), pp. 41 42, 47 49.
  • 52 Isaiah Bowman, The Pioneer Fringe (New York: The American Geographical Society, 1931), pp. 12–14.
  • 53 Lack of capital was probably the chief factor in the nondevelopment of the cattle-sheep grazing industry in southwestern Alaska. To tap the national or international market, a company needed not only livestock but ships, docks, and abattoirs. No one seemed willing to invest on this scale, in part because the reindeer industry farther north looked like a more viable concern for a while, and in part because capital at this time could be invested more safely and profitably in a wide variety of nonagricultural endeavors. On this latter point see Paul Wallace Gates, “The Role of the Land Speculator in Western Development,”Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 66 (1942), pp. 314 33.
  • 54 John Steinbeck, The Long Valley (New York: The Viking 1956), pp. 302–03. The passage quoted is from the story “The Leader of the People.”
  • 55 U. S. National Resources Committee, Regional Planning, Part VII, Alaska: Its Resources and Development (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1938).
  • 56 Paul K. Conklin, Tomorrow a New World: The New Deal Community Program (Ithaca: Cornell University 1959), p. 11.
  • 57 The provision creating the Division was part of the National Industrial Recovery Act of May, 1933. Another New Deal agency, the Federal Emergency Relief Association (FERA), was also active in the subsistence homestead program. Alaskan activities derived from this latter source.
  • 58 There is an abundance of literature on the Matanuska colony. Some of the more complete analyses are: M. A. Halldorson, “The Matanuska Valley Colonization Project,” unpublished masters thesis, Univ. of Colorado, 1936; Theodore C. Feldman, “The Federal Colonization Project in the Matanuska Valley, Alaska,” unpublished masters thesis, University of Washington, 1941; C. C. Hulley, “A Historical Survey of the Matanuska Valley Settlement,”Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol. 40 (1949), pp. 327 40; Kirk H. Stone, Alaska Group Settlement: The Matanuska Valley Colony, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1950); Hugh H. Johnson and Keith L. Stanton, Matanuska Valley Memoir: the Story of How One Alaskan Community Developed, University of Alaska, Alaska Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 18 (Palmer, Alaska, 1955); Evangeline Atwood, We Shall Be Remembered (Anchorage: Alaska Methodist University, 1966); and Miller, op. cit., footnote 2.
  • 59 Lawrence Westbrook, Questions and Answers about Matanuska Valley Colonization Project (text of a radio broadcast), Works Progress Administration (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1936), p. 2.
  • 60 Atwood, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 22.
  • 61 Stone, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 29. Another advantage of the “cutover” population was its Scandinavian heritage. Finns, in particular, had long been advocated as the ideal settlers for Alaska. See C. C. Georgeson, A Second Report to Congress on Agriculture in Alaska, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 62 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1899), p. 43; U. S. General Land Office, Annual Report of the Commissioner: 1902, p. 404; and Eugene Van Cleef, “The Finns of the Pacific Coast of the United States, and Consideration of the Problem of Scientific Land Settlement,”Annals, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 30 (1940), pp. 25–38.
  • 62 Elsie McCormick, “A Planned Economy is Put to the Test,”The New York Times, Sept. 8, 1935, Section 7, p. 19.
  • 63 The military personnel stationed in Alaska for the years 1940 through 1944 were, respectively: 1,000, 8,000, 60,000, 152,000, and 104,000. During the same time period the civilian population of the territory rose from 74,000 to 81,000; George W. Rogers, The Future of Alaska (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins 1962). p. 95.
  • 64 Harry Slattery, The Problem of Alaskan Development, U. S. Dept. of the Interior (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1939), p. 29.
  • 65 As the report put it: “Settlers … who can go back to a more or less comfortable existence if they tire of Alaska, are apt to take a critical view towards the problems of a pioneer community, whereas men and women who have definitely cut their ties with the past, who feel they must make their new life a good life or perish in the attempt, are more likely to face the hardships and to endure the sacrifices which the fashioning of that good life demands.” (Slattery, op. cit., footnote 64, p. 35.)
  • 66 The principal arguments against the bill were that the refugees might well be “the secret agents of the dictators,” and that it made no sense to bring in European immigrants when unemployment was already high in the U. S.; U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Territories and Insular Affairs, Hearings, Settlement and Development of Alaska, 76th Cong., 3rd Sess., 1940, pp. 74, 119.
  • 67 Hearings, Settlement and Development of Alaska, op. cit., footnote 66, p. 115. The author is Dr. Alvin Johnson, long-time director of the New School for Social Research in New York City and an authority on immigration.
  • 68 U. S. General Land Office, Annual Report of the Commissioner: 1944, p. 149. Similar statements can be found in the reports of 1945 and 1946.
  • 69 This was the title of an article by E. L. Bartlett, long-time Alaskan delegate to Congress and, after statehood, a U. S. Senator; American Federationist, Vol. 52 (March 1945), pp. 21, 32. For similar optimism see Fergus Hoffman, “There's Good Farming in Alaska,”The Christian Science Monitor Magazine, July 24, 1943, pp. 5, 13; Hilscher, op. cit., footnote 4; and Russell Annabel, “Homesteading Isn't for Softies,”The Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 220 (Nov. 8, 1947), pp. 18 ff.
  • 70 Stanley L. Balloun, “A Farmer Looks at Alaska,”Successful Farming, Vol. 43 (March, 1945), pp. 22 ff.; references on pp. 40, 42.
  • 71 Lorin T. Oldroyd, quoted by Hilscher, op. cit., footnote 4, p. 19.
  • 72 G. W. Gasser, Information for Prospective Settlers in Alaska (Juneau: Alaska Development Board, 1946); G. W. Gasser, Livestock in Alaska (Juneau: Alaska Development Board, 1946); G. W. Gasser, The Matanuska Valley (Juneau: Alaska Development Board, 1946); and G. W. Gasser, The Tanana Valley (Juneau: Alaska Development Board, 1946).
  • 73 General Information Regarding the Territory of Alaska, U. S. Department of the Interior (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1941); Information Relative to the Disposal and Leasing of Public Lands in Alaska, U. S. Department of the Interior, General Land Office Information Bulletin 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944); What Has Alaska to Offer Postwar Pioneers?, U. S. War Department, Education Manual 20, G. I. Roundtable Series (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944); P. V. Kepner and Lorin T. Oldroyd, Agriculture in Alaska, U. S. Department of Agriculture, War Food Administration, Extension Service (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1945); and Alaska: 1946, U. S. Department of the Interior, Division of Territories and Island Possessions (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1946).
  • 74 Corey Ford and Alastair MacBain, “Uncle Sam's Icebox,”Colliers': the National Weekly, Vol. 107 (January 4, 1941), pp. 28 30, 40; reference on p. 30.
  • 75 William L. Worden, “Is it True What They Say About Alaska?”The Country Gentleman, Vol. 113 (July, 1943), pp. 16, 24–25.
  • 76 George Sundborg, Opportunity in Alaska (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1946).
  • 77 It is an unexplored question why World War II generated so much settlement activity and World War I so little. Improved transportation and communication may be part of the answer, but the two principal reasons are probably that many servicemen were exposed first-hand to the beauties of Alaska during World War II and that government spending at the time was generating a local economic boom.
  • 78 “Promised Land,”Time, Vol. 49 (June 16, 1947), pp. 26–29; U. S. Bureau of Land Management, Annual Report of the Director: 1947, p. 283; the population figures are from Rogers, op. cit., footnote 63, p. 95; on the homestead bills see U. S. Congress, House, Committee on Public Lands, Hearings, Alaska Veterans' Homesteading Act of 1947, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 1947: and Providing for the Settlement of Certain Parts of Alaska by War Veterans, Report No. 944 of the 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 1947.
  • 79 The Truman statement is in U. S. Congressional Record, 80th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1948, Vol. 94, Part 5, p. 9266; for the other legislation see U. S. Congress, House, Committee on Public Lands, Hearings, Homesteading in Alaska by War Veterans, 81st Cong., 1st Sess., 1949, and Providing for the Settlement of Certain Parts of Alaska by War Veterans, Report No. 734 of the 81st Cong., 1st Sess., 1949.
  • 80 The need to protect the national security was prompted not only by the recent war, but by growing distrust of the Soviet Union (see the speech by Rep. Lemke in U. S. Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1949, Vol. 96, Part 6, p. 7652); a popular 1947 toast ran as follows: “Here's to Joe Stalin: Alaska's best friend.” (“Promised Land,” op. cit., footnote 78, p. 27). For the agrarian argument see the speeches of Reps. Murdock and Jensen in U. S. Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1949, Vol. 96, Part 6, p. 7651.
  • 81 Total population increased from 99,000 in 1946 to 138,000 in 1950 (Rogers, op. cit., footnote 63, p. 95).
  • 82 Requests averaged at least 5,000 per month in 1947. See U. S. Bureau of Land Management, Annual Report of the Director: 1947, p. 283.
  • 83 Homestead information is from Homesteads, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1962); population figures are from Rogers, op. cit., footnote 63, p. 95. One of the few accurate observers of the situation was Richard L. Neuberger, “Our Urbane, Civilized Frontier,”The New York Times Magazine, July 13, 1947, pp. 16–17, 22–23.
  • 84 U. S. Bureau of the Census, Seventeenth Census of the United States: 1950. Agriculture, Vol. 1, Part 34.1: Alaska, pp. 8–9, 13–14, 17.

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