The Role of Leadership and Strategy in Navigating Political Incorporation: Defining a Niche for Human Relations in Orange County, California, 1971–2000

REFERENCES

• Amenta, Edwin, Mary Bernstein, and Kathleen Dunleavy. 1994. “Stolen Thunder? Huey Long's ‘Share Our Wealth,’ Political Mediation, and the Second New Deal.” American Sociological Review 59:678–702.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amenta, Edwin, Bruce G. Carruthers, and Yvonne Zylan. 1992. “A Hero for the Aged? The Townsend Movement, The Political Mediation Model, and U.S. Old-Age Policy, 1934–1950.” American Journal of Sociology 98(2):308–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Council on Race Relations (ACRR). 1945. Manual for Official Committees. Chicago, IL: Community Services Division, ACRR.
   Google Scholar
• American Council on Race Relations (ACRR). 1946. Community Relations Manual. Chicago, IL: Community Services Division, ACRR.
   Google Scholar
• American Council on Race Relations (ACRR). 1948. “To Secure These Rights” in Your Community. Chicago, IL: Community Services Division, ACRR.
   Google Scholar
• Aminzade, Ron, Jack A. Goldstone, and Elizabeth J. Perry. 2001. “Leadership Dynamics and Dynamics of Contention.” Pp. 126–54 in Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics, edited by R. Aminzade, J. Goldstone, D. Mcadam, E. Perry, W. Sewell, S. Tarrow, and C. Tilly. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Astley, W. Graham and Charles J. Fombrun. 1983. “Collective Strategy: Social Ecology of Organizational Environments.” Academy of Management Review 8(4):576–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldassare, Mark. 1998. When Governments Fail: The Orange County Bankruptcy. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Banaszak, Lee Ann. 1996. Why Movements Succeed or Fail: Opportunity, Culture, and the Struggle for Woman Suffrage. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Banaszak, Lee Ann. 2005. “Inside and Outside the State: Movement Insider Status, Tactics, and Public Policy Achievements.” Pp. 149–76 in Routing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy, and Democracy, edited by D. Meyer, V. Jenness, and H. Ingram. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bandy, Joe and Jackie Smith. 2005. Coalitions across Borders: Transnational Protest and the Neoliberal Order. Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Benjamin, Gerald. 1974. Race Relations and the New York City Commission on Human Rights. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blumer, Herbert. 1969. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Burstein, Paul. 1985. Discrimination, Jobs, and Politics: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity in the United States since the New Deal. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Burstein, Paul. 1999. “Social Movements and Public Policy.” Pp. 3–21 in How Social Movements Matter, edited by M. Guigni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• CAHRO News. 1998. “The Entrepreneurial Spirit in Human Relations/Rights Commissions.” California Association of Human Relations Organizations, San Francisco, CA, February/March. Retrieved September 6, 2006 (http://www.cahro.org/html/febmarch98-3.html).
   Google Scholar
• Child, John. 1972. “Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice.” Sociology 6:1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Clemens, Elisabeth S. 1993. “Organizational Repertoires and Institutional Change: Women's Groups and the Transformation of U.S. Politics, 1890–1920.” American Journal of Sociology 98(4):755–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clemens, Elisabeth S. 1997. The People's Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest Group Politics in the United States, 1890–1920. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Clemens, Elisabeth S. and Debra C. Minkoff. 2004. “Beyond the Iron Law: Rethinking the Place of Organizations in Social Movement Research.” Pp. 155–70 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by D. Snow, S. Soule, and H. Kriesi. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Cole, Richard L. 1974. Citizen Participation and the Urban Policy Process. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Cress, Daniel M. and David A. Snow. 1996. “Mobilization at the Margins: Resources, Benefactors, and the Viability of Homeless Social Movement Organizations.” American Sociological Review 61(5):1089–109.
   Google Scholar
• Cress, Daniel M. and David A. Snow. 2000. “The Outcomes of Homeless Mobilization: The Influence of Organization, Disruption, Political Mediation, and Framing.” American Journal of Sociology 105(4):1063–104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dizon, Lily. 1996. “County Human Relations Office Near the Brink.” Los Angeles Times, February 27, p. B1.
   Google Scholar
• Drummond, Tammerlin. 1990. “Evidence of Racial Tension Mounts as O.C. Urbanizes.” Los Angeles Times, December 10, p. 1.
   Google Scholar
• Edelman, Murray J. 1964. The Symbolic Uses of Politics. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Eisenstein, Hester. 1996. Inside Agitators: Australian Femocrats and the State. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gamson, William A. 1990. The Strategy of Social Protest. 2d ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Ganz, Marshall. 2000. “Resources and Resourcefulness: Strategic Capacity in the Unionization of California Agriculture, 1959–1966.” American Journal of Sociology 105(4):1003–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganz, Marshall, Kim Voss, Teresa Sharpe, Carl Somers, and George Strauss. 2004. “Against the Tide: Projects and Pathways of the New Union Leaders, 1984–2001.” Pp. 150–94 in Rebuilding Labor: Organizing and Organizers in the New Union Movement, edited by R. Milkman and K. Voss. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs, Jewelle Taylor and Teiasha Bankhead. 2001. Preserving Privilege: California Politics, Propositions and People of Color. Westport, CT: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Giugni, Marco. 1998a. “Was It Worth the Effort? The Outcomes and Consequences of Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 98:371–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giugni, Marco. 1998b. “Social Movements and Change: Incorporation, Transformation, and Democratization.” Pp. xi–xxvi in From Contention to Democracy, edited by M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Giugni, Marco. 1999. “How Social Movements Matter: Past Research, Present Problems, Future Developments.” Pp. xiii–xxxiii in How Social Movements Matter, edited by M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Giugni, Marco, Doug McAdam, and Charles Tilly, eds. 1998. From Contention to Democracy. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Giugni, Marco and Florence Passy. 1998. “Contentious Politics in Complex Societies: New Social Movements between Conflict and Cooperation.” Pp. 81–107 in From Contention to Democracy, edited by M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Glaser, Barney G. and Anselm L. Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
   Google Scholar
• Goldstone, Jack A. 2003b. “Bridging Institutionalized and Noninstitutionalized Politics.” Pp. 1–24 in States, Parties, and Social Movements, edited by J. Goldstone. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goodwin, Jeff and James M. Jasper. 1999. “Caught in a Winding, Snarling Vine: The Structural Bias of Political Process Theory.” Sociological Forum 14(1):27–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haas, Lisbeth. 1991. “Grass Roots Protest and the Politics of Planning: Santa Ana, 1976–88.” Pp. 254–80 in Postsuburban California, edited by R. Kling, S. Olin, and M. Poster. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Haines, Herbert. 1984. “Black Radicalization and the Funding of Civil Rights: 1957–1970.” Social Problems 32(1):31–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hannan, Michael T. and John Freeman. 1989. Organizational Ecology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Helfgot, Joseph. 1974. “Professional Reform Organizations and the Symbolic Representation of the Poor.” American Sociological Review 39(4):475–91.
   Google Scholar
• Hrebiniak, Lawrence G. and William F. Joyce. 1985. “Organizational Adaptation: Strategic Choice and Environmental Determinism.” Administrative Science Quarterly 30(2):336–49.
   Google Scholar
• Jasper, James. 2004. “A Strategic Approach to Collective Action: Looking for Agency in Social Movement Choices.” Mobilization 9(1):1–16.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins, J. Craig. 1977. “Radical Transformation of Organizational Goals.” Administrative Science Quarterly 22(3):568–86.
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins, J. Craig and Craig M. Eckert. 1986. “Channeling Black Insurgency: Elite Patronage and Professional Social Movement Organizations in the Development of the Black Movement.” American Sociological Review 51(5):812–29.
   Google Scholar
• Jenness, Valerie and Ryken Grattet. 2001. Making Hate a Crime: From Social Movement to Law Enforcement. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod. 1998. Faithful and Fearless: Moving Feminist Protest inside the Church and Military. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy, Rusty. 1995, November. “Infrastructure Is Needed to Protect Our Cities.” City Lights (newsletter of the Orange County Division, League of California Cities) 6(1):1.
   Google Scholar
• Killian, Lewis M. 1979. “‘The Race Relations Industry’ as a Sensitizing Concept.” Research in Social Problems and Public Policy 1:113–37.
   Google Scholar
• Kling, Rob, Spencer Olin, and Mark Poster. 1991. Postsuburban California: The Transformation of Orange County since World War II. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kotkin, Joel. 1997. The Fate of a Post Suburban Paradise. Claremont, CA: La Jolla Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Lipset, Seymour Martin, Martin Trow, and James Coleman. 1956. Union Democracy: The Inside Politics of the International Typographical Union. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lipsky, Michael. 1968. “Protest as a Political Resource.” American Political Science Review 62(4):1144–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsky, Michael and David J. Olson. 1976. “The Processing of Racial Crisis in America.” Politics & Society 6:79–103.
   Google Scholar
• Lipsky, Michael and David J. Olson. 1977. Commission Politics: The Processing of Racial Crisis in America. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
   Google Scholar
• Lo, Clarence Y. H. 1990. Small Property versus Big Government: Social Origins of the Property Tax Revolt. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Marris, Peter and Martin Rein. 1967. The Dilemmas of Social Reform: Poverty and Community Action in the United States. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• McAdam, Doug. 1983. “Tactical Innovation and the Pace of Insurgency.” American Sociological Review 48(5):735–53.
   Google Scholar
• McAdam, Doug. 1988. Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy, John D. and Mayer N. Zald. 1987. “The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization.” Pp. 337–91 in Social Movements in an Organizational Society, edited by M. Zald and J. McCarthy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
   Google Scholar
• McWilliams, Carey. 1951. Brothers under the Skin. Revised edition. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, David S., Valerie Jenness, and Helen Ingram. 2005. Routing the Opposition: Social Movements, Public Policy and Democracy. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, David S. and Sidney Tarrow. 1998. The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Michels, Robert. [1915] 1958. Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Minkoff, Debra C. 1994. “From Service Provision to Institutional Advocacy: The Shifting Legitimacy of Organizational Forms.” Social Forces 72(4):943–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, Aldon. 1984. The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, Aldon and Suzanne Staggenborg. 2004. “Leadership and Social Movements.” Pp. 171–96 in Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by D. Snow, S. Soule, and H. Kriesi. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Moynihan, Daniel Patrick. 1969. Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding: Community Action in the War on Poverty. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• National Association of Intergroup Relations Officials. 1964. A Memorandum to Municipalities: Guidelines for Municipal Human Relations Committees. Washington, DC: National Association of Intergroup Relations Officials.
   Google Scholar
• Oberschall, Anthony. 1978. “The Decline of the 1960s Social Movements.” Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 1:257–89.
   Google Scholar
• Oliver, Christine. 1988. “The Collective Strategy Framework: An Application to Competing Predictions of Isomorphism.” Administrative Science Quarterly 33(3):543–61.
   Google Scholar
• Oliver, Christine. 1991. “Strategic Responses to Institutional Processes.” Academy of Management Review 16(1):145–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. 1987. “Race and the Right: The Politics of Reaction.” Research in Social Policy 1:145–77.
   Google Scholar
• Piven, Frances Fox and Richard A. Cloward. 1977. Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail. New York: Pantheon Books.
   Google Scholar
• Platt, Anthony. 1971. The Politics of Riot Commissions, 1917–1970. New York: Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• President's Committee on Civil Rights. 1947. To Secure These Rights: The Report of the President's Committee on Civil Rights. New York: Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Rivera, Carla. 1991. “The Agency of Social Conscience.” Los Angeles Times, March 17, p. 1.
   Google Scholar
• Rochon, Thomas R. and David S. Meyer. 1997. Coalitions and Political Movements: The Lessons of the Nuclear Freeze. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
   Google Scholar
• Rustin, Bayard. 1971 [1965]. “From Protest to Politics: The Future of the Civil Rights Movement.” pp. 111–112 in Down The Line: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin. Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books.
   Google Scholar
• Santoro, Wayne A. and Gail M. McGuire. 1997. “Social Movement Insiders: The Impact of Institutional Activists on Affirmative Action and Comparable Worth Policies.” Social Problems 44(4):503–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schou, Nick. 1996. “Civil Rights for Sale.” OC Weekly, January 19–26, p. 8.
   Google Scholar
• Selznick, Philip. [1949] 1966. TVA and the Grass Roots. New York: Harper & Row.
   Google Scholar
• Skrentny, John D. 2002. The Minority Rights Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Staggenborg, Suzanne. 1986. “Coalition Work in the Pro-Choice Movement: Organizational and Environmental Opportunities and Obstacles.” Social Problems 33(5):374–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staggenborg, Suzanne. 1988. “The Consequences of Professionalization and Formalization in the Pro-Choice Movement.” American Sociological Review 53(3):585–605.
   Google Scholar
• Stearns, Linda Brewster and Paul Almeida. 2004. “The Formation of State Actor-Social Movement Coalitions and Favorable Policy Outcomes.” Social Problems 51(4):478–504.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stepan-Norris, Judith. 1997. “The Making of Union Democracy.” Social Forces 76(2):475–510.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stepan-Norris, Judith and Maurice Zeitlin. 1995. “Union Democracy, Radical Leadership, and the Hegemony of Capital.” American Sociological Review 60(6):829–50.
   Google Scholar
• Surman, Barry S. 1984. “The County's Human Relations Commission: At 14, a Mature Approach.” Los Angeles Times, December 16, Part II p. 1 (Orange County edition).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice, Community Relations Service. 1975. Guidelines for Effective Human Relations Commissions. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Voss, Kim and Rachel Sherman. 2000. “Breaking the Iron Law of Oligarchy: Union Revitalization in the American Labor Movement.” American Journal of Sociology 106(2):303–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, Max. 1946. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. Edited by H. J. Gerth and C. Wright Mills. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Werum, Regina and Bill Winders. 2001. “Who's ‘In’ and Who's ‘Out’: State Fragmentation and the Struggle over Gay Rights, 1974–1999.” Social Problems 48(3):386–410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolinsky, Leo C. 1979. “County's Rights Panel: The Issues Are Thorny.” Los Angeles Times, November 12, Part II p. 1 (Orange County edition).
   Google Scholar
• Wolfson, Mark. 2001. The Fight against Big Tobacco: The Movement, the State, and the Public's Health. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
   Google Scholar
• Zald, Mayer N. and Roberta Ash. 1966. “Social Movement Organizations: Growth, Decay and Change.” Social Forces 44(2):327–40.
   Google Scholar
• Zald, Mayer N. and Michael A. Berger. 1978. “Social Movements in Organizations: Coup d'Etat, Bureaucratic Insurgency, and Mass Movement.” American Journal of Sociology 83(4):823–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zald, Mayer N. and Patricia Denton. 1963. “From Evangelism to General Service: On the Transformation of the YMCA.” Administrative Science Quarterly 8(1):214–34.
   Google Scholar
• Zald, Mayer N. and John D. McCarthy. 1987. “Social Movement Industries: Competition and Conflict among SMOs.” Pp. 161–80 in Social Movements in an Organizational Society, edited by M. Zald and J. McCarthy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
   Google Scholar