Public School Segregation and Juvenile Violent Crime Arrests in Metropolitan Areas

REFERENCES

• Agnew, Robert. 1992. “Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency.” Criminology 30:47–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allport, Gordon W. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Amir, Yehuda. 1969. “Contact Hypothesis in Ethnic Relations.” Psychological Bulletin 71:319–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, Carolyn S. 1982. “The Search for School Climate: A Review of the Literature.” Review of Educational Research 52:368–420.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, E. 1978. A Place on the Corner. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blalock, Hubert M. 1967. Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Blau, Peter and Judith Blau. 1982. “The Cost of Inequality: Metropolitan Structure and Violent Crime.” American Sociological Review 38:736–49.
   Google Scholar
• Blauner, Bob. 2001. Still the Big News: Racial Oppression in America. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blumer, Herbert. 1958. “Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position.” Pacific Sociological Review 1:3–7.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer, Marilynn B. and Norman Miller. 1984. “Beyond the Contact Hypothesis: Theoretical Perspectives on Desegregation.” Pp. 281–302 in Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation, edited by Norman Miller and Marilynn B. Brewer. Orlando, FL: Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Chamlin, Mitchell B. and Allen E. Liska. 1992. “Social Structure and Crime Control Revisited: The Declining Significance of Intergroup Threat.” Pp. 103–12 in Social Threat and Social Control, edited by Allen E. Liska. Albany: State University of New York Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, Albert K. 1955. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, Elizabeth G. 1972. “The Effects of Desegregation on Race Relations.” Law and Contemporary Problems 39:271–99.
   Google Scholar
• Downey, Douglas B., Paul Von Hippel, and Beckett Broh. 2004. “Are Schools the Great Equalizer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year.” American Sociological Review 69:613–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle, David J., Stewart J. D'Alessio, and Lisa Stolzenberg. 2002. “Racial Threat and Social Control: A Test of the Political, Economic, and Threat of Black Crime Hypotheses.” Social Forces 81:557–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle, David J. and Tamela M. Eitle. 2003. “Segregation and School Violence.” Social Forces 82:589–616.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle, Tamela M. and David J. Eitle. 2004. “Inequality, Segregation, and the Overrepresentation of African Americans in School Suspensions.” Sociological Perspectives 47:269–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott, Delbert S., Beatrix Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams. 1998. Violence in American Schools. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Forbes, H. D. 1997. Ethnic Conflict: Commerce, Culture, and the Contact Hypothesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fox, James Alan and Marianne Zawitz. 2004. Homicide Trends in the United States. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved January 2009 (http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/htus02.pdf).
   Google Scholar
• Gottfredson, Denise C. 2001. Schools and Delinquency. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gottfredson, Gary D. and Denise C. Gottfredson. 1985. Victimization in Schools. New York: Plenum.
   Google Scholar
• Hellman, Daryl A. and Susan Beaton. 1986. “The Pattern of Violence in Urban Public Schools: The Influence of School and Community.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 23:102–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Islam, Mir R. and Miles Hewstone. 1993. “Dimensions of Contact as Predictors of Intergroup Anxiety, Perceived Out-Group Variability, and Out-Group Attitude: An Integrative Model.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 19:700–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, David and Robert M. O'Brien. 1998. “The Determinants of Deadly Force: A Structural Analysis of Police Violence.” American Journal of Sociology 103:837–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins, Patricia H. 1995. “School Delinquency and School Commitment.” Sociology of Education 68:221–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krivo, Lauren J. and Ruth D. Peterson. 1996. “Extremely Disadvantaged Neighborhoods and Urban Crime.” Social Forces 75:619–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krivo, Lauren J., Ruth D. Peterson, Helen Rizzo, and John R. Reynolds. 1998. “Race, Segregation, and the Concentration of Disadvantage.” Social Problems 45:61–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaFree, Gary and Richard Arum. 2006. “The Impact of Racially Segregated Schooling on the Risk of Adult Incarceration Rates among U.S. Cohorts of African Americans and Whites since 1930.” Criminology 44(1):77–108.
   Google Scholar
• Laub, John H. and Janet L. Lauritsen. 1998. “The Interdependence of School Violence with Neighborhood and Family Conditions.” Pp. 127–49 in Violence in American Schools, edited by Delbert S. Elliott, Beatrix Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, Barrett A., Sean F. Reardon, Glenn Firebaugh, Chad R. Farrell, Stephen A. Matthews, and David O'Sullivan. 2008. “Beyond the Census Tract: Patterns and Determinants of Racial Segregation at Multiple Geographic Scales.” American Sociological Review 73(5):766–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, Valerie E. and David T. Burkam. 2002. Inequality at the Starting Gate: Social Background Differences in Achievement as Children Begin School. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Liska, Allen E., ed. 1992. Social Threat and Social Control. Albany: State University of New York.
   Google Scholar
• Liska, Allen E. and Mitchell B. Chamlin. 1984. “Social Structure and Crime Control among Macrosocial Units.” American Journal of Sociology 90:383–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liska, Allen E, Mitchell B. Chamlin, and Mark D. Reed. 1985. “Testing the Economic Production and Conflict Models of Crime Control.” Social Forces 64:119–38.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logan, John R. and Steven F. Messner. 1987. “Racial Residential Segregation and Suburban Violent Crime.” Social Science Quarterly 68:511–27.
   Google Scholar
• Logan, John R., Deidre Oakley, and Jacob Stowell. 2003. “Segregation in Neighborhoods and Schools: Impacts on Minority Children in the Boston Region.” Paper presented at the Harvard Color Lines Conference, an initiative of The Civil Rights Project, Harvard University, August 23, Cambridge, MA.
   Google Scholar
• Massey, Douglas A. and Nancy A. Denton. 1987. “Trends in the Residential Segregation of Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians: 1970–1980.” American Sociological Review 52:802–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massey, Douglas A. and Nancy A. Denton. 1993. American Apartheid. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Menacker, Julius, Ward Weldon, and Emanuel Hurwitz. 1990. “Community Influences on School Crime and Violence.” Urban Education 25:68–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, Steven F., Reid M. Golden. 1992. “Racial Inequality and Racially Disaggregated Homicide Rates: An Assessment of Alternative Theoretical Explanations.” Criminology 30:421–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, Steven F., Lawrence E. Raffalovich, and Richard McMillan. 2001. “Economic Deprivation and Changes in Homicide Arrest Rates for White and Black Youths, 1967–1998: A National Time-Series Analysis.” Criminology 39:591–613.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, Steven F. and Richard Rosenfeld. 1997. “Political Restraint of the Market and Levels of Criminal Homicide: A Cross-National Application of Institutional-Anomie Theory.” Social Forces 75:1393–416.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, Steven F. and Robert Sampson. 1991. “The Sex-Ratio, Family Disruption, and Rates of Violent Crime: The Paradox of Demographic Structure.” Social Forces 69:693–714.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, Steven F. and Scott J. South. 1986. “Economic Deprivation, Opportunity Structure, and Robbery Victimization: Intra- and Interracial Patterns.” Social Forces 64:975–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messner, Steven F. and Scott J. South. 1988. “Estimating Race-Specific Offending Rates: An Inter-City Comparison of Arrest Data and Victim Reports.” Journal of Crime and Justice 11:25–45.
   Google Scholar
• Moody, James. 2001. “Race, School Integration, and Friendship Segregation in America.” American Journal of Sociology 107:679–716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oakes, Jeanne. 1985. Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Olzak, Susan, Suzanne Shanahan, and Elizabeth H. McEneaney. 1996. “Poverty, Segregation, and Race Riots: 1960 to 1993.” American Sociological Review 61:590–613.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orfield, Gary and Chungmei Lee. 2005. Why Segregation Matters: Poverty and Educational Inequality. Cambridge, MA: The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.
   Google Scholar
• Orfield, Gary and Chungmei Lee. 2007. Historic Reversals, Accelerating Resegregation and the Need for New Integration Strategies. Los Angeles, CA: The Civil Rights Project/Proyecto Derechos Civiles, UCLA.
   Google Scholar
• Ousey, Graham C. and Michelle Campbell Augustine. 2001. “Young Guns: Examining Alternative Explanations of Juvenile Firearm Homicide Rates.” Criminology 39:933–63.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, Karen F. and Patricia L. McCall. 1999. “Structural Conditions and Racial Homicide Patterns: A Look at the Multiple Disadvantages in Urban Areas.” Criminology 37:447–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, Karen F., Brian J. Stults, and Stephen K. Rice. 2005. “Racial Threat, Concentrated Disadvantage and Social Control: Considering the Macro-Level Sources of Variation in Arrests.” Criminology 43:1111–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne, Allison Ann, Denise C. Gottfredson, and Gary D. Gottfredson. 2002. “Schools as Communities: The Relationships among Communal School Organization, Student Bonding, and School Disorder.” Criminology 41:749–78.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, Ruth D. and Lauren J. Krivo. 1993. “Racial Segregation and Black Urban Homicide.” Social Forces 71:1001–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, Ruth D. and Lauren J. Krivo. 1999. “Racial Segregation, the Concentration of Disadvantage, and Black and White Homicide Victimization.” Sociological Forum 14:465–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1971. Racially Separate or Together? New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, Thomas F. 2004. “Intergroup Contact: Theory, Research, and New Perspectives.” Pp. 770–81 in Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, edited by James Banks and Cherry A. McGee Banks. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, J. A. 2002. “White, Black, and Latino Homicide Rates: Why the Difference?” Social Problems 49:349–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinney, Richard. 1977. Class, State and Crime. New York: David McKay.
   Google Scholar
• Reardon, Sean F., John T. Yun, and Tamela M. Eitle. 2000. “The Changing Structure of School Segregation: Measurement and Evidence of Multiracial Metropolitan Area School Segregation, 1989–1995.” Demography 37:351–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum, Emily. 1997. “Racial/Ethnic Differences in Home Ownership and Housing Quality, 1991.” Social Problems 43:403–26.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, Richard. 1986. “Urban Crime Rates: Effects of Inequality, Welfare Dependency, Region, and Race.” Pp. 116–30 in The Social Ecology of Crime, edited by James M. Byrne and Robert J. Sampson. New York: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Rumberger, Russell W. and J. Doug Williams. 1992. “The Impact of Racial and Ethnic Segregation on the Achievement Gap in California High Schools.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 14:377–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson Robert J. and William J. Wilson. 1995. “Toward a Theory of Race, Crime, and Urban Inequality.” Pp. 37–54 in Crime and Inequality, edited by John Hagan and Ruth D. Peterson. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schofield, Janet W. 1986. “Black-White Contact in Desegregated Schools.” Pp. 79–92 in Contact and Conflict in Intergroup Encounters, edited by Miles Hewstone and Rupert Brown. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Schofield, Janet W. 1991. “School Desegregation and Intergroup Relations: A Review of the Literature.” Pp. 335–409 in Review of Research in Education, edited by G. Grant. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw, C. and H. McKay. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sheley, Joseph F., Zina T. McGee, and James D. Wright. 1992. “Gun-Related Violence in and around Inner-City Schools.” American Journal of Diseases of Children 146:677–82.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shihadeh, Edward S. and Nicole Flynn. 1996. “Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence.” Social Forces 74:1325–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shihadeh, Edward S. and Darrell J. Steffensmeier. 1994. “Economic Inequality, Family Disruption, and Urban Black Violence: Cities as Units of Stratification and Social Control.” Social Forces 73:729–51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sickmund, Melissa, Howard N. Snyder, and Eileen Poe-Yamagata. 1997. Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1997 Update on Violence. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
   Google Scholar
• South, Scott, J. and Richard B. Felson. 1990. “The Racial Patterning of Rape.” Social Forces 69:71–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer, Steven. 1975. “Toward a Marxian Theory of Deviance.” Social Problems 22:638–51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. John, Nancy H. 1975. School Desegregation: Outcomes for Children. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, Darrell J. and Dana Haynie. 2000. “Gender, Structural Disadvantage, and Urban Crime: Do Macrosocial Variables Also Explain Female Offending Rates?” Criminology 38:403–38.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephan, Walter G. 1978. “School Desegregation: An Evaluation of the Predictions Made in Brown v. Board of Education.” Psychological Bulletin 85:217–38.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephan, Walter G. and Cookie W. Stephan. 1996. Intergroup Relations. Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark.
   Google Scholar
• Stolzenberg, Lisa, Stewart J. D'Alessio, and David J. Eitle. 2004. “A Multilevel Test of Racial Threat Theory.” Criminology 42:673–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turk, Austin T. 1969. Criminality and the Legal Order. Chicago, IL: Rand-McNally.
   Google Scholar
• Weiner, David A., Byron Lutz, and Jens Ludwig. 2009. “The Effects of School Desegregation on Crime.” National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Working Paper No. 15380. Retrieved January 2009 (http://www.nber.org/papers/w15380).
   Google Scholar
• Welsh, Wayne W., Jack R. Greene, and Patricia H. Jenkins. 1999. “School Disorder: The Influence of Individual, Institutional, and Community Factors.” Criminology 37:601–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh, Wayne W., Robert Stokes, and Jack R. Greene. 2000. “A Macro-Level Model of School Disorder.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 27:243–83.
   Google Scholar
• Wilder, David A. 1993. “The Role of Anxiety in Facilitating Stereotypic Judgments of Out-Group Behavior.” Pp. 87–109 in Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception, edited by Diane M. Mackie and David L. Hamilton. San Diego, CA: Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, W. J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass and Public Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yun, John T. and Sean F. Reardon. 2002. “Trends in School Segregation in the South, 1987–2000.” Paper presented at the Resegregation of Southern Schools Conference, the University of North Carolina Center for Civil Rights, August 30, Chapel Hill, NC.
   Google Scholar