The Disparate Impact of Metropolitan Economic Change: The Growth of Extreme Poverty Neighborhoods, 1970–1990Footnote

* I would like to thank James O. Wheeler, Tom Hodler, C. P. Lo, Jeri Stolk, Paul Plummer, and especially Steven Holloway for their constructive criticisms and suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper. I would also like to thank my wife, Ava Fujimoto-Strait, for her editorial and cartographic assistance. The comments of three anonymous reviewers are also greatly appreciated.

References

• An, C. B.; Haveman, R.; and Wolfe, B. 1990. The effect of childhood events and economic circumstances on teen fertility out-of-wedlock and the receipt of welfare: Estimates from a sequential decision model. Working paper. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bobo, L., and Smith, R. A. 1994. Antipoverty policy, affirmative action, and racial attitudes. In Confronting poverty, ed. S. H. Danzinger, G. D. Sandefur, and D. H. Weinberg, 21–43. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bound, J., and Holzer, H. J. 1993. Industrial shifts, skills levels, and the labor market for white and black males. Review of Economics and Statistics 75:387–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks-Gunn, J.; Duncan, G. J.; Klebanov, P. K.; and Sealand, N. 1993. Do neighborhoods influence child and adolescent development? American Journal of Sociology 99:353–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browning, H., and Singlemann, J. 1978. The transformation of the U.S. labor force: The interaction of industry and occupation. Politics and Society 8:481–509.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooke, T. J. 1999. Geographic context and concentrated urban poverty within the United States. Urban Geography 20:552–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crane, J. 1991. Effects of neighborhood on dropping out of school and teenage child-bearing. In The urban underclass, ed. C. Jenks and P. E. Peterson, 299–320. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
   Google Scholar
• Danzinger, S. H., and Gottschalk, P. 1987. Earnings inequality, the spatial concentration of poverty, and the underclass. American Economic Review 77:211–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danzinger, S. H.; Jakubson, S.; Schwartz, G.; and Smolenksy, E. 1982. Work and welfare as determinants of female poverty and household headship. Quarterly Journal of Economics 77:519–39.
   Google Scholar
• Darity, W. A., and Myers, S. L., Jr. 1984. Does welfare dependency cause female headship? The case of the black family. Journal of Marriage and the Family 46:765–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, G. J. 1994. Families and neighbors as sources of disadvantage in the schooling decisions of white and black adolescents. American Journal of Sociology 103:20–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, G. J., and Hoffman, S. D. 1990. Welfare benefits, economic opportunities, and out-of-wedlock births among black teenage girls. Demography 27:519–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, G. J., and Hoffman, S. D. 1991. Teenage underclass behavior and subsequent poverty: Have the rules changed? In The urban underclass, ed. C. Jenks and P. E. Peterson, 155–74. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
   Google Scholar
• Durden, G. C., and Schwarz-Miller, A. V. 1982. The distribution of individual income in the U.S. and public sector employment. Social Science Quarterly 63:39–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eggers, M. L., and Massey, D. S. 1991. The structural determinants of urban poverty: A comparison of whites, blacks, and Hispanics. Social Science Research 20:217–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisinger, P. 1983. Black employment in city government: 1973–1980. Washington, D.C.: Joint Center for Political Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Ellwood, D. T., and Bane, M. J. 1985. The impact of AFDC on family structure and living arrangements. In Research in labor economics, ed. R. G. Ehrenberg, 137–207. Greenwich, Conn: JAI.
   Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, R. 1988. When government goes private: Successful alternatives to public services. New York: Universe Books.
   Google Scholar
• Galster, G. C., and Mincy, R. B. 1993. Understanding the changing fortunes of metropolitan neighborhoods: 1980 to 1990. Housing Policy Debate 4:303–52.
   Google Scholar
• Galster, G. C.; Mincy, R. B.; and Tobin, M. 1997. The disparate racial neighborhood impacts of metropolitan economic restructuring. Urban Affairs Review 32:797–824.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garfinkel, I., and McLanahan, S. S. 1986. Single mothers and their children: A new American dilemma. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gilder, G. 1980. Wealth and poverty. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Green, G. P.; Tigges, L. M.; and Browne, I. 1995. Social resources, job search and poverty in Atlanta. Research in Community Sociology 5:161–82.
   Google Scholar
• Greene, R. P. 1991a. Poverty area diffusion: The depopulation hypothesis examined. Urban Geography 12:526–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, R. P. 1991b. Poverty concentration measures and the urban underclass. Economic Geography 67:240–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, R. P. 1994. Poverty-area instability: The case of Chicago. Urban Geography 15:362–75.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honig, M. 1973. AFDC income, recipient rates, and family dissolution. Journal of Human Resources 9:303–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, M. A. 1989a. Misspeaking truth to power: A geographical perspective on the underclass fallacy. Economic Geography 65:188–206.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, M. A. 1989b. Concentrated deviance and the underclass hypothesis. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 8:274–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, M. A. 1990. Formation of the impacted ghetto: Evidence from large metropolitan areas: 1970–1980. Urban Geography 11:265–84.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, M. A. 1991. Employment decentralization and accessibility: A strategy for stimulating regional mobility. Journal of the American Planning Association (Summer):288–98.
   Google Scholar
• Jargowsky, P. 1994. Ghetto poverty among blacks in the 1980s. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 13:288–310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jargowsky, P. 1996. Beyond the street corner: The hidden diversity of high-poverty neighborhoods. Urban Geography 17:579–603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jargowsky, P. 1997. Poverty and place: Ghettos, barrios and the American city. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Jargowsky, P., and Bane, M. J. 1990. Ghetto poverty: Basic questions. In Inner-city poverty in the United States, ed. L. E. Lynn. Jr., and M. G. H. McGeary, 16–67. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jargowsky, P., and Bane, M. J. 1991. Ghetto poverty in the United States: 1970 to 1980. In The urban underclass, ed. C. Jenks and P. E. Peterson, 235–73. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.
   Google Scholar
• Jenks, C., and Mayer, S. E. 1990. The social consequences of growing up in a poor neighborhood. In Inner-city poverty in the United States, ed. L. E. Lynn, Jr., and M. G. H. McGeary, 187–222. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, J. H., and Oliver, M. L. 1991. Economic restructuring and black male joblessness in U.S. metropolitan areas. Urban Geography 12:542–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, J. H., and Oliver, M. L. 1992. Structural changes in the U.S. economy and black male joblessness: A reassessment. In Urban labor markets and job opportunity, ed. G. E. Peterson and W. Vroman, 113–39. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, J. P., III 1990. Work, welfare and poverty among black female-headed families. In Geographic dimensions of U.S. social policy, ed. J. E. Kodras and J. P. Jones, III, 200–217. New York: Edward Arnold.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, J. P., III, and Hanham, R. Q. 1995. Contingency, realism and the expansion method. Geographical Analysis 27:185–207.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, J. P., III, and Kodras, J. E. 1990. Restructured regions and families: The feminization of poverty in the U.S. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 80:163–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasarda, J. D. 1989. Urban industrial transition and the urban underclass. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 501:26–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasarda, J. D. 1990. Structural factors affecting the location and timing of the urban underclass. Urban Geography 11:234–64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasarda, J. D. 1993. Inner-city concentrated poverty and neighborhood distress, 1970 to 1990. Housing Policy Debate 4:253–302.
   Google Scholar
• Kaus, M. 1994. The cure. New Republic, September, 6–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kodras, J. E. 1997. The changing map of American poverty in an era of economic restructuring and political realignment. Economic Geography 73:67–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kodras, J. E., and Jones, J. P., III 1991. A contextual examination of the feminization of poverty. Geoforum 22:159–71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lobao, L.; Rulli, J.; and Brown, L. A. 1999. Macrolevel theory and local-level inequality: Industrial structure, institutional arrangements, and the political economy of redistribution, 1970 and 1990. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 89:571–601.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGeary, M. 1990. Ghetto poverty and federal policies and programs. In Inner-city poverty in the United States, ed. L. E. Lynn, Jr., and M. G. H. McGeary, 223–52. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Massey, D. S., and Eggers, M. L. 1990. The ecology of inequality: Minorities and the concentration of poverty, 1970–1980. American Journal of Sociology 95:1153–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meade, L. M. 1986. Beyond entitlement.: The social obligations of citizenship. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Meade, L. M. 1992. The new politics of poverty: The nonworking poor in America. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Mincy, R. B. 1994. The underclass: Concepts, controversy and evidence. In Confronting poverty: Prescription for change, ed. S. Danzinger, D. Weinburg, and G. Sandefeur, 109–46. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mincy, R. B. 1997. Ghetto poverty: Black problem or harbinger of things to come? In A different vision: Race and public policy, Vol. 2, ed. T. D. Boston, 38–71. New York: Random House.
   Google Scholar
• Mincy, R. B., and Wiener, S. J. 1993. The underclass in the 1980s: Changing concepts, constant reality. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Mincy, R. B., and Wiener, S. J. Concentrated poverty and the underclass. In Two views of urban America, ed. M. J. Malbin, 5–13. Albany: Public Policy Institute of the State University of New York.
   Google Scholar
• Moffitt, R. 1990a. Has state redistribution policy grown more conservative? National Tax Journal 43:123–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffitt, R. 1990b. The effect of the U.S. welfare system on marital status. Journal of Public Economics 11:101–24.
   Google Scholar
• Moffitt, R. 1992. Incentive effects of the U.S. welfare system: A review. Journal of Economic Literature 30:1–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, T. S., and Laramore, A. 1990. Industrial change and urban joblessness: An assessment of the mismatch hypothesis. Urban Affairs Quarterly 25:640–58.
   Google Scholar
• Murray, C. 1984. Losing ground. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Murray, C. 1993. Welfare and the family: The U.S. experience. Journal of Labor Economics 11:224–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Hare, W., and Curry-White, B. 1992. The rural underclass: Examination of multiple-problem populations in urban and rural settings. Working paper. Population Reference Bureau, Washington, D.C.
   Google Scholar
• Ozawa, M. N. 1989. Welfare policies and illegitimate birth rates among adolescents: Analysis of state-by-state data. Social Work Research and Abstracts 14:5–11.
   Google Scholar
• Page, B. I., and Shapiro, R. Y. 1992. The rational public: Fifty years of trends in America’s policy preferences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ross, H. L., and Sawhill, I. 1975. Time of transition: The growth of families headed by women. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, A. J. 1988. Flexible production systems and regional development: The rise of new industrial spaces in North America and Western Europe. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 12:171–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, J. 1984. The paradox of women’s poverty: Wage earning women and economic transformation. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 10:291–310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suggs, R. E. 1989. Minorities and privatization: Economic mobility at risk. Washington, D.C.: Joint Center for Political Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Underclass database (UDB). 1993. CD-Rom tabulated by Mitch Tobin. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1970. Census of population and housing: Census tracts. Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1980. Census of population and housing: Census tracts. Summary tape file 3-A. Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1990. Census of population and housing: Census tracts. Summary tape file 3-A. Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Measurement Division. 1990. Regional information system. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce.
   Google Scholar
• Waldinger, R. 1996. Still the promised city? Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, W. J. 1980. The declining significance of race: Blacks and changing American institutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, W. J. 1987. The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, W. J. 1991. Studying inner-city social dislocations: The challenge of public agenda research. American Sociological Review 56:1–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, W. J. 1996. When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
   Google Scholar