REFERENCES
- Alessi, D. R., and P. Cohen. 1998. Mechanism of activation and function of protein kinase B. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 8:55–62.
- Andjelkovic, M., D. R. Alessi, R. Meier, A. Fernandez, N. J. Lamb, M. Frech, P. Cron, P. Cohen, J. M. Lucocq, and B. A. Hemmings. 1997. Role of translocation in the activation and function of protein kinase B. J. Biol. Chem. 272:31515–31524.
- Banerjee, D., and A. Liefshitz. 2001. Potential of the proteasomal inhibitor MG-132 as an anticancer agent, alone and in combination. Anticancer Res. 21:3941–3947.
- Beurel, E., and R. S. Jope. 2006. The paradoxical pro- and anti-apoptotic actions of GSK3 in the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis signaling pathways. Prog. Neurobiol. 79:173–189.
- Brunet, A., A. Bonni, M. J. Zigmond, M. Z. Lin, P. Juo, L. S. Hu, M. J. Anderson, K. C. Arden, J. Blenis, and M. E. Greenberg. 1999. Akt promotes cell survival by phosphorylating and inhibiting a Forkhead transcription factor. Cell 96:857–868.
- Chauvier, D., S. Ankri, C. Charriaut-Marlangue, R. Casimir, and E. Jacotot. 2007. Broad-spectrum caspase inhibitors: from myth to reality? Cell Death Differ. 14:387–391.
- Danial, N. N., and S. J. Korsmeyer. 2004. Cell death: critical control points. Cell 116:205–219.
- Datta, S. R., A. Brunet, and M. E. Greenberg. 1999. Cellular survival: a play in three Akts. Genes Dev. 13:2905–2927.
- Dealy, C. N., and R. A. Kosher. 1995. Studies on insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin in chick limb morphogenesis. Dev. Dyn. 202:67–79.
- Dealy, C. N., and R. A. Kosher. 1996. IGF-I, insulin and FGFs induce outgrowth of the limb buds of amelic mutant chick embryos. Development 122:1323–1330.
- Dearth, R. K., X. Cui, H. J. Kim, D. L. Hadsell, and A. V. Lee. 2007. Oncogenic transformation by the signaling adaptor proteins insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and IRS-2. Cell Cycle 6:705–713.
- Debock, C. A., and A. Peters. 1963. Effect of thalidomide on the development of the chick embryo. Nature 199:1204–1206.
- Ding, V. W., R. H. Chen, and F. McCormick. 2000. Differential regulation of glycogen synthase kinase 3beta by insulin and Wnt signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 275:32475–32481.
- Esposito, D. L., Y. Li, A. Cama, and M. J. Quon. 2001. Tyr612 and Tyr632 in human insulin receptor substrate-1 are important for full activation of insulin-stimulated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity and translocation of GLUT4 in adipose cells. Endocrinology 142:2833–2840.
- Fukumoto, S., C. M. Hsieh, K. Maemura, M. D. Layne, S. F. Yet, K. H. Lee, T. Matusi, A. Rosenzweig, W. G. Taylor, J. S. Rubin, et al. 2001. Akt participation in the Wnt signaling pathway through Dishevelled. J. Biol. Chem. 276:17479–17483.
- Gockel, H. R., A. Lugering, J. Heidemann, M. Schmidt, W. Domschke, T. Kucharzik, and N. Lugering. 2004. Thalidomide induces apoptosis in human monocytes by using a cytochrome c-dependent pathway. J. Immunol. 172:5103–5109.
- Gordon, M. D., and R. Nusse. 2006. Wnt signaling: multiple pathways, multiple receptors, and multiple transcription factors. J. Biol. Chem. 281:22429–22433.
- Hardt, S. E., and J. Sadoshima. 2002. Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta: a novel regulator of cardiac hypertrophy and development. Circ. Res. 90:1055–1063.
- Kim, D., and J. Chung. 2002. Akt: versatile mediator of cell survival and beyond. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 35:106–115.
- Knobloch, J., J. D. Shaughnessy, Jr., and U. Rüther. 2007. Thalidomide induces limb deformities by perturbing the Bmp/Dkk1/Wnt signaling pathway. FASEB J. 21:1410–1421.
- Korinek, V., N. Barker, P. J. Morin, D. van Wichen, R. de Weger, K. W. Kinzler, B. Vogelstein, and H. Clevers. 1997. Constitutive transcriptional activation by a beta-catenin-Tcf complex in APC−/− colon carcinoma. Science 275:1784–1787.
- Krueger, A., I. Schmitz, S. Baumann, P. H. Krammer, and S. Kirchhoff. 2001. Cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein splice variants inhibit different steps of caspase-8 activation at the CD95 death-inducing signaling complex. J. Biol. Chem. 276:20633–20640.
- Leslie, N. R. 2006. The redox regulation of PI 3-kinase-dependent signaling. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 8:1765–1774.
- Leslie, N. R., and C. P. Downes. 2004. PTEN function: how normal cells control it and tumour cells lose it. Biochem. J. 382:1–11.
- Lim, S. J., Y. J. Lee, D. H. Park, E. Lee, M. K. Choi, W. Park, K. H. Chun, H. G. Choi, and J. S. Cho. 2007. Alpha-tocopheryl succinate sensitizes human colon cancer cells to exisulind-induced apoptosis. Apoptosis 12:423–431.
- Newman, L. M., E. M. Johnson, and R. E. Staples. 1993. Assessment of the effectiveness of animal developmental toxicity testing for human safety. Reprod. Toxicol. 7:359–390.
- Newton, R., L. Cambridge, L. A. Hart, D. A. Stevens, M. A. Lindsay, and P. J. Barnes. 2000. The MAP kinase inhibitors, PD098059, UO126 and SB203580, inhibit IL-1beta-dependent PGE2 release via mechanistically distinct processes. Br. J. Pharmacol. 130:1353–1361.
- Niehrs, C. 2006. Function and biological roles of the Dickkopf family of Wnt modulators. Oncogene 25:7469–7481.
- Pan, L., J. Lu, X. Wang, L. Han, Y. Zhang, S. Han, and B. Huang. 2007. Histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin a potentiates doxorubicin-induced apoptosis by up-regulating PTEN expression. Cancer 109:1676–1688.
- Parman, T., M. J. Wiley, and P. G. Wells. 1999. Free radical-mediated oxidative DNA damage in the mechanism of thalidomide teratogenicity. Nat. Med. 5:582–585.
- Peter, M. E., and P. H. Krammer. 2003. The CD95(APO-1/Fas) DISC and beyond. Cell Death Differ. 10:26–35.
- Sawin, P. B., D. Crary, R. R. Fox, and H. M. Wuest. 1965. Thalidomide malformations and genetic background in the rabbit. Experientia 21:672–677.
- Schmid, A. C., R. D. Byrne, R. Vilar, and R. Woscholski. 2004. Bisperoxovanadium compounds are potent PTEN inhibitors. FEBS Lett. 566:35–38.
- Schmitz, I., C. Meyer, and K. Schulze-Osthoff. 2006. CD95 ligand mediates T-cell receptor-induced apoptosis of a CD4+ CD8+ double positive thymic lymphoma. Oncogene 25:7587–7596.
- Simpson, L., J. Li, D. Liaw, I. Hennessy, J. Oliner, F. Christians, and R. Parsons. 2001. PTEN expression causes feedback upregulation of insulin receptor substrate 2. Mol. Cell. Biol. 21:3947–3958.
- Smithells, R. W., and C. G. Newman. 1992. Recognition of thalidomide defects. J. Med. Genet. 29:716–723.
- Stambolic, V., T. W. Mak, and J. R. Woodgett. 1999. Modulation of cellular apoptotic potential: contributions to oncogenesis. Oncogene 18:6094–6103.
- Sugimori, K., K. Matsui, H. Motomura, T. Tokoro, J. Wang, S. Higa, T. Kimura, and I. Kitajima. 2005. BMP-2 prevents apoptosis of the N1511 chondrocytic cell line through PI3K/Akt-mediated NF-kappaB activation. J. Bone Miner. Metab. 23:411–419.
- Tanaka, S., and J. R. Wands. 1996. A carboxy-terminal truncated insulin receptor substrate-1 dominant negative protein reverses the human hepatocellular carcinoma malignant phenotype. J. Clin. Investig. 98:2100–2108.
- Taniguchi, C. M., B. Emanuelli, and C. R. Kahn. 2006. Critical nodes in signalling pathways: insights into insulin action. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 7:85–96.
- Taylor, J. M., P. J. Crack, J. A. Gould, U. Ali, P. J. Hertzog, and R. C. Iannello. 2004. Akt phosphorylation and NFkappaB activation are counterregulated under conditions of oxidative stress. Exp. Cell Res. 300:463–475.
- Thoma, B., M. Grell, K. Pfizenmaier, and P. Scheurich. 1990. Identification of a 60-kD tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor as the major signal transducing component in TNF responses. J. Exp. Med. 172:1019–1023.
- Tian, Q., X. C. He, L. Hood, and L. Li. 2005. Bridging the BMP and Wnt pathways by PI3 kinase/Akt and 14-3-3zeta. Cell Cycle 4:215–216.
- Ui, M., T. Okada, K. Hazeki, and O. Hazeki. 1995. Wortmannin as a unique probe for an intracellular signalling protein, phosphoinositide 3-kinase. Trends Biochem. Sci. 20:303–307.
- Waite, K. A., and C. Eng. 2003. BMP2 exposure results in decreased PTEN protein degradation and increased PTEN levels. Hum. Mol. Genet. 12:679–684.
- Wang, X. 2001. The expanding role of mitochondria in apoptosis. Genes Dev. 15:2922–2933.
- Wang, X., L. C. Trotman, T. Koppie, A. Alimonti, Z. Chen, Z. Gao, J. Wang, H. Erdjument-Bromage, P. Tempst, C. Cordon-Cardo, P. P. Pandolfi, and X. Jiang. 2007. NEDD4-1 is a proto-oncogenic ubiquitin ligase for PTEN. Cell 128:129–139.
- Yamamoto, K., H. Ichijo, and S. J. Korsmeyer. 1999. BCL-2 is phosphorylated and inactivated by an ASK1/Jun N-terminal protein kinase pathway normally activated at G2/M. Mol. Cell. Biol. 19:8469–8478.
- Zimmerman, L. B., J. M. de Jesus-Escobar, and R. M. Harland. 1996. The Spemann organizer signal noggin binds and inactivates bone morphogenetic protein 4. Cell 86:599–606.