The Level of Intracellular Glutathione Is a Key Regulator for the Induction of Stress-Activated Signal Transduction Pathways Including Jun N-Terminal Protein Kinases and p38 Kinase by Alkylating Agents

REFERENCES

• Adler, V., A. Schaffer, J. Kim, L. Dolan, and Z. Ronai. 1995. UV irradiation and heat shock mediate JNK activation via alternate pathways. J. Biol. Chem. 270:26071–26077.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angel, P. 1995. The role and regulation of the Jun proteins in response to phorbol ester and UV light., p. 62–92. In P. Baeuerle (ed.). Inducible gene expression and cytoplasmic/nuclear signal transduction. Birkhäuser Verlag, Boston, Mass.
   Google Scholar
• Angel, P., and M. Karin. 1991. The role of Jun, Fos and the AP-1 complex in cell-proliferation and transformation. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1072:129–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angel, P., K. Hattori, T. Smeal, and M. Karin. 1988. The c-jun protooncogene is positively autoregulated by its product, Jun/AP-1. Cell 55:875–885.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aruoma, O. I., B. Halliwell, B. M. Hoey, and J. Butler. 1989. The antioxidant action of N-acetyl cysteine: its reaction with hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical, superoxide and hypochlorous acid. Free Radical Biol. Med. 6:593–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagrodia, S., B. Dérijard, R. J. Davis, and R. A. Cerione. 1995. Cdc42 and PAK-mediated signaling leads to Jun kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. J. Biol. Chem. 270:27995–27998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beranek, D. T., C. C. Weis, and D. H. Swenson. 1980. A comprehensive quantitative analysis of methylated and ethylated DNA using high pressure liquid chromatography. Carcinogenesis 1:595–606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergelson, S., R. Pinkus, and V. Daniel. 1994. Intracellular glutathione levels regulate Fos/Jun induction and activation of glutathione S-transferase gene expression. Cancer Res. 54:36–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Betzholtz, C., A. Johnsson, C.-H. Heldin, and B. Westermark. 1986. Efficient reversion of simian sarcoma virus—transformation and inhibition of growth factor-induced mitogenesis by suramin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:6440–6444.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Britten, R. A., J. A. Green, and H. M. Warenius. 1992. Cellular glutathione (GSH) and glutathione-S-transferases (GST) activity in human ovarian tumor biopsies following exposure to alkylating agents. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 24:527–531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, D. C. 1981. Methods for enucleation and reconstruction of interfer-on-producing cells. Methods Enzymol. 79:552–557.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cano, E., C. A. Hazzalin, and L. C. Mahadevan. 1994. Anisomycin-activated protein kinases p45 and p55 but not mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK-1 and -2 are implicated in the induction of c-fos and c-jun. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14:7352–7362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavigelli, M., F. Dolfi, F.-X. Claret, and M. Karin. 1995. Induction of c-fos expression through JNK-mediated TCF/Elk-1 phosphorylation. EMBO J. 14:5957–5964.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cavigelli, M., W. Li, A. Lin, B. Su, K. Yoshioka, and M. Karin. 1996. The tumor promoter arsenite stimulates AP-1 activity by inhibiting a JNK phosphatase. EMBO J. 15:6296–6279.
   Google Scholar
• Chasseaud, L. F. 1979. The role of glutathione and glutathione-S-trans-ferases in the metabolism of chemical carcinogens and other electrophilic agents. Adv. Cancer Res. 29:175–274.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coso, O. A., M. Chiariello, J.-C. Yu, H. Teramoto, P. Crespo, N. Xu, T. Miki, and J. S. Gutkind. 1995. The small GTP-binding proteins Rac-1 and Cdc42 regulate the activity of the JNK/SAPK signaling pathway. Cell 81:1137–1146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coso, O. A., H. Teramoto, W. F. Simonds, and J. S. Gutkind. 1995. Signaling from G-protein coupled receptors to c-Jun kinase involves bg subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins acting on a Ras and Rac1-dependent pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 271:3963–3966.
   Google Scholar
• Crespo, P., T. G. Cachero, N. Xu, and J. S. Gutkind. 1995. Dual effect of beta-adrenergic receptors on mitogen-activated protein kinase. Evidence for a beta gamma-dependent activation and a G alpha s-cAMP-mediated inhibition. J. Biol. Chem. 270:25259–25265.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davis, R. J. 1994. MAPKs: new JNK expands the group. Trends Biochem. Sci. 19:470–473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng, T., and M. Karin. 1993. JunB differs from c-Jun in its DNA-binding and dimerization domains, and represses c-Jun by formation of inactive heterodimers. Genes Dev. 7:479–490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng, T., and M. Karin. 1994. c-Fos transcriptional activity stimulated by H-Ras-activated protein kinase distinct from JNK and ERK. Nature 371:171–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dérijard, B., M. Hibi, I.-H. Wu, T. Barrett, B. Su, T. Deng, M. Karin, and R. J. Davis. 1994. JNK1: a protein kinase stimulated by UV light and Ha-Ras that binds and phosphorylates the c-Jun activation domain. Cell 76:1025–1037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dérijard, B., J. Raingeaud, T. Barrett, I.-H. Wu, J. Han, R. J. Ulevitch, and R. J. Davis. 1995. Independent human MAP kinase signal transduction pathways defined by MEK and MKK isoforms. Science 267:682–685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devary, Y., R. A. Gottlieb, L. F. Lau, and M. Karin. 1991. Rapid and preferential activation of the c-jun gene during the mammalian UV response. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11:2804–2811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devary, Y., R. A. Gottlieb, T. Smeal, and M. Karin. 1992. The mammalian ultraviolet response is triggered by activation of Src tyrosine kinases. Cell 71:1081–1091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devary, Y., C. Rosette, J. A. DiDonato, and M. Karin. 1993. NFkB activation by ultraviolet light not dependent on a nuclear signal. Science 261:1442–1445.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galcheva-Gargova, Z., B. Dérijard, I.-H. Wu, and R. J. Davis. 1994. An osmosensing signal transduction pathway in mammalian cells. Science 265:806–808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gille, H., A. D. Sharrocks, and P. E. Shaw. 1992. Phosphorylation of transcription factor p62TCF by MAP kinase stimulates ternary complex formation at c-fos promoter. Nature 358:414–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gille, H., T. Strahl, and P. E. Shaw. 1995. Activation of ternary complex factor Elk-1 by stress-activated protein kinases. Curr. Biol. 5:1191–1200.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gille, H., M. Kortenjann, O. Thomae, C. Moomaw, C. Slaughter, M. H. Cobb, and P. E. Shaw. 1995. ERK phosphorylation potentiates Elk-1-mediated ternary complex formation and transactivation. EMBO J. 14:951–962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, S., D. Campbell, B. Dérijard, and R. J. Davis. 1995. Transcription factor ATF-2 regulation by the JNK signal transduction pathway. Science 267:389–393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, S., T. Barrett, A. J. Whitmarsh, J. Cavanagh, H. K. Sluss, B. Dérijard, and R. J. Davis. 1996. Selective interaction of JNK protein kinase isoforms with transcription factors. EMBO J. 15:2760–2770.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hibi, M., A. Lin, T. Smeal, A. Minden, and M. Karin. 1993. Identification of an oncoprotein- and UV-responsive protein kinase that binds and potentiates the c-Jun activation domain. Genes Dev. 7:2135–2148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holbrook, N. J., and A. J. Fornace, Jr. 1991. Response to adversity: molecular control of gene activation following genotoxic stress. New Biol. 3:825–833.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huang, S. S., and J. S. Huang. 1988. Rapid turnover of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor in sis-transformed cells and reversal by suramin. J. Biol. Chem. 263:12608–12618.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalink, K., P. L. Hordijk, and W. H. Moolenaar. 1994. Growth factor-like effects of lysophosphatidic acid, a novel lipid mediator. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1198:185–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. S., B. van Lingen, V. E. Papaioannou, and B. M. Spiegelman. 1993. A null mutation at the c-jun locus causes embryonic lethality and retarded cell growth in culture. Genes Dev. 7:1309–1317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaina, B., G. Fritz, S. Mitra, and T. Coquerelle. 1991. Transfection and expression of human O6-methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferase (MGMT) cDNA in Chinese hamster cells: the role of MGMT in protection against genotoxic effects of alkylating agents. Carcinogenesis 12:1857–1867.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kharbanda, S., R. Ren, P. Pandey, T. D. Shafman, S. M. Feller, R. R. Weichselbaum, and D. W. Kufe. 1995. Activation of the c-Abl tyrosine kinase in the stress response to DNA-damaging agents. Nature 376:785–788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knebel, A., H. J. Rahmsdorf, A. Ullrich, and P. Herrlich. 1996. Dephosphorylation of receptor tyrosine kinases as target of regulation by radiation, oxidants or alkylating agents. EMBO J. 15:5314–5325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knebel, A., D. Wilhelm, and P. Angel. Unpublished data.
   Google Scholar
• Kolbus, A., and P. Angel. Unpublished data.
   Google Scholar
• Kroese, E. D., M. J. Zeilmaker, G. R. Mohn, and J. H. N. Meerman. 1990. Preventive action of thioethers towards in vitro DNA binding and mutagenesis in E. coli K12 by alkylating agents. Mutat. Res. 245:67–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kyriakis, J. M., P. Banerjee, E. Nikolakaki, T. Dai, E. A. Rubie, M. F. Ahmad, J. Avruch, and J. R. Woodgett. 1994. The stress-activated protein kinase subfamily of c-Jun kinases. Nature 369:156–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leevers, S. J., and C. J. Marshall. 1992. Activation of extracellular signal- regulated kinase, ERK2, by p21ras oncoprotein. EMBO J. 11:569–574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, A., A. Minden, H. Martinetto, F.-X. Claret, C. Lange-Carter, F. Mercurio, G. L. Johnson, and M. Karin. 1995. Identification of a dual specificity kinase that activates Jun kinases and p38-Mpk2. Science 268:286–290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Z. G., R. Baskaran, E. Lea-Chou, L. D. Wood, Y. Chen, M. Karin, and J. Y. J. Wang. 1996. Three distinct signalling responses by murine fibroblasts to genotoxic stress. Nature 384:273–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingstone, C., G. Patel, and N. Jones. 1995. ATF-2 contains a phosphorylation-dependent transcriptional activation domain. EMBO J. 14:1785–1797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn, S., F. H. Yew, J.-W. Hwang, M.-J. Tseng, and K. Y. Jan. 1994. Glutathione can rescue the inhibitory effects of nickel on DNA ligation and repair synthesis. Carcinogenesis 15:2811–2816.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marshall, C. J. 1995. Specificity of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling: transient versus sustained extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation. Cell 80:179–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meister, A. 1983. Selective modification of glutathione metabolism. Science 220:472–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meister, A. 1991. Glutathione deficiency produced by inhibition of its synthesis and its reversal. Applications in research and therapy. Pharmacol. Ther. 51:155–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minden, A., A. Lin, M. McMahon, C. Lange-Carter, B. Dérijard, R. J. Davis, G. L. Johnson, and M. Karin. 1994. Differential activation of ERK and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinases by Raf-1 and MEKK. Science 266:1719–1723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minden, A., A. Lin, F.-X. Claret, A. Abo, and M. Karin. 1995. Selective activation of the JNK signaling cascade and c-Jun transcriptional activity by the small GTPases Rac and Cdc42Hs. Cell 81:1147–1157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizumoto, K., P. A. Glascott, Jr., and J. L. Farber. 1993. Roles for oxidative stress and poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in the killing of cultured hepatocytes by methyl methane-sulfonate. Biochem. Pharmacol. 46:1811–1818.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moolenaar, W. H. 1995. Lysophosphatidic acid signalling. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 7:203–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moolenaar, W. H. 1995. Lysophosphatidic acid, a multifunctional phospholipid messenger. J. Biol. Chem. 270:12949–12952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, J. I., and T. Curran. 1991. Stimulus-transcription coupling in the nervous system: involvement of the inducible proto-oncogenes fos and jun. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 14:421–451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moriguchi, T., H. Kawasaki, S. Matsuda, Y. Gotoh, and E. Nishida. 1995. Evidence for multiple activators for stress-activated protein kinases/c-Jun amino-terminal kinases. J. Biol. Chem. 270:12969–12972.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natarajan, A. T., J. W. I. M. Simons, E. W. Vogel, and A. A. van Zeeland. 1984. Relationship between cell killing, chromosomal aberrations, sisterchromatid exchanges and point mutations induced by monofunctional alkylating agents in Chinese hamster cells. Mutat. Res. 128:31–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Olson, M. F., A. Ashworth, and A. Hall. 1995. An essential role for Rho, Rac, Cdc42 GTPases in cell cycle progression through G1. Science 269:1270–1272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paik, W. K., S. Kim, P. N. Magee, and P. D. Lotlikar. 1984. Alkylation of protein by methyl methanesulfonate and 1-methyl-nitrosourea in vitro. Cancer Lett. 23:9–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peto, R., R. Gray, P. Brantom, and P. Grasso. 1985. N-nitroso compounds: occurrence, biological effects and relevance to human cancer, p. 627–655. IARC Scientific Publication no. 57. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France.
   Google Scholar
• Pulverer, B. J., J. M. Kyriakis, J. Avruch, E. Nikolakaki, and J. R. Woodgett. 1991. Phosphorylation of c-Jun mediated by MAP kinases. Nature 353:670–674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pulverer, B. J., K. Hughes, C. C. Franklin, A. S. Kraft, S. J. Leevers, and J. R. Woodgett. 1993. Co-purification of mitogen-activated protein kinases with phorbol ester-induced c-Jun kinase activity in U937 leukaemic cells. Oncogene 8:407–415.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Radler-Pohl, A., C. Sachsenmaier, S. Gebel, H.-P. Auer, J. T. Bruder, U. Rapp, P. Angel, H. J. Rahmsdorf, and P. Herrlich. 1993. UV-induced activation of AP-1 involves obligatory extranuclear steps including Raf-1 kinase. EMBO J. 12:1005–1012.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raingeaud, J., S. Gupta, J. S. Rogers, M. Dickens, J. Han, R. J. Ulevitch, and R. J. Davis. 1995. Pro-inflammatory cytokines and environmental stress cause p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation by dual phosphorylation on tyrosine and threonine. J. Biol. Chem. 270:7420–7426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sachsenmaier, C., A. Radler-Pohl, R. Zinck, A. Nordheim, P. Herrlich, and H. J. Rahmsdorf. 1994. Involvement of growth factor receptors in the mammalian UVC response. Cell 78:963–972.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez, I., R. T. Hughes, B. J. Mayer, K. Yee, J. R. Woodgett, J. Avruch, J. M. Kyriakis, and L. I. Zon. 1994. Role of SAPK/ERK kinase-1 in the stress-activated pathway regulating transcription factor c-Jun. Nature 372:794–798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreiber, M., B. Baumann, M. Cotten, P. Angel, and E. F. Wagner. 1995. Fos is an essential component of the mammalian UV response. EMBO J. 14:5338–5349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibuya, T., and K. Morimoto. 1993. A review of the genotoxicity of 1-ethyl-1-nitrosourea. Mutat. Res. 297:3–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, B. 1975. The chemical effects of nucleic acids alkylation and their relation to mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol. 15:219–284.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singer, B., and D. Grunberger. 1983. Molecular biology of mutagens and carcinogens. Plenum Press, New York, N.Y.
   Google Scholar
• Sluss, H. K., T. Barrett, B. Dérijard, and R. J. Davis. 1994. Signal transduction by tumor necrosis factor mediated by JNK protein kinases. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14:8376–8384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smeal, T., B. Binetruy, D. A. Mercola, M. Birrer, and M. Karin. 1991. Oncogenic and transcriptional cooperation with Ha-Ras requires phosphorylation of c-Jun on serines 63 and 73. Nature 354:494–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smeal, T., B. Binetruy, D. Mercola, A. Grover-Bardwick, G. Heidecker, U. R. Rapp, and M. Karin. 1992. Oncoprotein-mediated signalling cascade stimulates c-Jun activity by phosphorylation of serines 63 and 73. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12:3507–3513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein, B., P. Angel, H. van Dam, H. Ponta, P. Herrlich, A. van der Eb, and H. J. Rahmsdorf. 1992. Ultraviolet-radiation induced c-jun gene transcription: two AP-1 like binding sites mediate the response. Photochem. Photo-biol. 55:409–415.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tokiwa, G., I. Dikic, S. Lev, and J. Schlessinger. 1996. Activation of Pyk2 by stress signals and coupling with JNK signaling pathway. Science 273:792–794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Dam, H., M. Duyndam, R. Rottier, A. Bosch, L. de Vries-Smits, P. Herrlich, A. Zantema, P. Angel, and A. J. van der Eb. 1993. Heterodimer formation of c-Jun and ATF-2 is responsible for induction of c-Jun by the 243 amino acid adenovirus E1A protein. EMBO J. 12:479–487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Dam, H., D. Wilhelm, I. Herr, A. Steffen, P. Herrlich, and P. Angel. 1995. ATF-2 is preferentially activated by stress-activated protein kinases to mediate c-Jun induction in response to genotoxic agents. EMBO J. 14:1798–1811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vojtek, A. B., and J. A. Cooper. 1995. Rho family members: activators of MAP kinase cascades. Cell 82:527–529.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Westwick, J. K., C. Weitzel, A. Minden, M. Karin, and D. A. Brenner. 1994. Tumor necrosis factor a stimulates AP-1 activity through prolonged activation of the c-Jun kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 269:26396–26401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitmarsh, A. J., P. Shore, A. D. Sharrocks, and R. J. Davis. 1995. Integration of MAP kinase signal transduction pathways at the serum response element. Science 269:403–407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilhelm, D., and P. Angel. Unpublished data.
   Google Scholar
• Yan, M., T. Dai, J. C. Deak, J. M. Kyriakis, L. I. Zon, J. R. Woodgett, and D. J. Templeton. 1994. Activation of stress-activated protein kinase by MEKK1 phosphorylation of its activator SEK1. Nature 372:798–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yayon, A., and M. Klagsbrun. 1990. Autocrine transformation by chimeric signal peptide-basic fibroblast growth factor: reversal by suramin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:5346–5350.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zinck, R., M. A. Cahill, M. Kracht, C. Sachsenmaier, R. A. Hipskind, and A. Nordheim. 1995. Protein synthesis inhibitors reveal differential regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways that converge on Elk-1. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:4930–4938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar