Analysis of SM22α-Deficient Mice Reveals Unanticipated Insights into Smooth Muscle Cell Differentiation and Function

REFERENCES

• Almendral, J. M., J. F. Santaren, J. Perera, M. Zerial, and R. Bravo. 1989. Expression, cloning and cDNA sequence of a fibroblast serum-regulated gene encoding a putative actin-associated protein (p27). Exp. Cell Res. 181:518–530.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ayme-Southgate, A., P. Lasko, C. French, and M. L. Pardue. 1989. Characterization of the gene for mp20: a Drosophila muscle protein that is not found in asynchronous oscillatory flight muscle. J. Cell Biol. 108:521–531.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bradley, A.. 1987. Production and analysis of chimaeric mice. Teratocarcinomas and embryonic stem cells: a practical approach.. E. J. Robertson. 113–151. IRL Press, Oxford, England
   Google Scholar
• Chan, Y. M., Q. C. Yu, J. D. Fine, and E. Fuchs. 1993. The genetic basis of Weber-Cockayne epidermolysis bullosa simplex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:7414–7418.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang, M. W., E. Barr, J. Seltzer, Y.-Q. Jiang, G. J. Nabel, E. G. Nabel, M. S. Parmacek, and J. M. Leiden. 1995. Cytostatic gene therapy for vascular proliferative disorders with a constitutively active form of the retinoblastoma gene product. Science 267:518–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duband, J. L., M. Gimona, M. Scatena, S. Sartore, and J. V. Small. 1993. Calponin and SM22 as differentiation markers of smooth muscle: spatiotemporal distribution during avian embryonic development. Differentiation 55:1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fentzke, R. C., C. E. Korcarz, R. M. Lang, H. Lin, and J. M. Leiden. 1998. Dilated cardiomyopathy in transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative CREB transcription factor in the heart. J. Clin. Investig. 101:2415–2426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goetinck, S., and R. H. Waterston. 1994. The Caenorhabditis elegans muscle-affecting gene unc-87 encodes a novel thin filament associated protein. J. Cell Biol. 127:79–93.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Helmke, B. P., R. D. Goldman, and P. F. Davies. 2000. Rapid displacement of vimentin intermediate filaments in living cells exposed to flow. Circ. Res. 86:745–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herring, B. P., and A. F. Smith. 1996. Telokin expression is mediated by a smooth muscle cell-specific promoter. Am J. Physiol. 270:C1656–C1665.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hiraoka, Y., J. W. Sedat, and D. A. Agard. 1990. Determination of three-dimensional properties of a light microscope system: partial confocal behavior in epifluorescence microscopy. Biophys. J. 57:325–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan, B., R. Beddington, F. Constantini, and E. Lacy. 1994. Manipulating the mouse embryo, 2nd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, N.Y
   Google Scholar
• James, A. L., P. D. Pare, and J. C. Hogg. 1989. The mechanics of airway narrowing in asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139:242–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, S., H. S. Ip, M. M. Lu, C. Clendenin, and M. S. Parmacek. 1997. A serum response factor-dependent transcriptional regulatory program identifies distinct smooth muscle cell sublineages. Mol. Cell. Biol. 17:2266–2278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuo, C. T., E. E. Morrisey, R. Anandappa, K. Sigrist, M. M. Lu, M. S. Parmacek, C. Soudais, and J. M. Leiden. 1997. GATA4 transcription factor is required for ventral morphogenesis and heart tube formation. Genes Dev. 11:1048–1060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawson, D., M. Harrison, and C. Shapland. 1997. Fibroblast transgelin and smooth muscle SM22α are the same protein, the expression of which is down-regulated in many cell lines. Cell Motil. Cytoskel. 38:250–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lees-Miller, J. P., D. H. Heeley, and L. B. Smillie. 1987. An abundant and novel protein of 22 kDa (SM22) is widely distributed in smooth muscles. Purification form bovine aorta. Biochem. J. 244:705–709.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li, L., J. M. Miano, P. Cserjesi, and E. N. Olson. 1996. SM22α, a marker of adult smooth muscle, is expressed in multiple myogenic lineages during embryogenesis. Circ. Res. 78:188–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, L., J. M. Miano, B. Mercer, and E. N. Olson. 1996. Expression of the SM22α promoter in transgenic mice provides evidence for distinct transcriptional regulatory programs in vascular and visceral smooth muscle cells. J. Cell Biol. 132:849–859.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mack, C. P., and G. K. Owens. 1999. Regulation of smooth muscle α-actin expression in vivo is dependent on CArG elements within the 5′ and first intron promoter regions. Circ. Res. 84:852–861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madsen, C. S., R. C. P., J. E. Hungerford, S. L. White, I. Manabe, and G. K. Owens. 1998. Smooth muscle-specific expression of the smooth muscle myosin heavy chain gene in transgenic mice requires 5′-flanking and first intronic DNA sequence. Circ. Res. 82:908–917.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moessler, H., M. Mericskay, Z. Li, S. Nagl, D. Paulin, and J. V. Small. 1996. The SM22 promoter directs tissue-specific expression in arterial but not in venous or visceral smooth muscle cells in transgenic mice. Development 122:2415–2425.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morrisey, E. E., H. S. Ip, Z. Tang, and M. S. Parmacek. 1997. GATA-4 activates transcription via two novel domains that are conserved within the GATA-4/5/6 subfamily. J. Biol. Chem. 272:8515–8524.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morrisey, E. E., Z. Tang, K. Sigrist, M. M. Lu, F. Jiang, H. S. Ip, and M. S. Parmacek. 1998. GATA6 regulates HNF4 and is required for differentiation of visceral endoderm in the mouse embryo. Genes Dev. 12:3579–3590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newby, A. C., and A. B. Zaltsman. 1999. Fibrous cap formation or destruction—the critical importance of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration and matrix formation. Cardiovasc. Res. 41:345–360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• North, A. J., M. Gimona, Z. Lando, and J. V. Small. 1994. Actin isoform compartments in chicken gizzard smooth muscle cells. J. Cell. Sci. 107:445–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens, G. K.. 1998. Molecular control of vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation. Acta Physiol. Scand. 164:623–635.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parmacek, M. S. Transcriptional programs regulating vascular smooth muscle cell development and differentiation. Curr. Top. Dev. Biol., in press.
   Google Scholar
• Parmacek, M. S., and J. M. Leiden. 1989. Structure and expression of the murine slow/cardiac troponin C gene. J. Biol. Chem. 264:13217–13225.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qian, J., A. Kumar, J. C. Szuscik, and J. L. Lessard. 1996. Tissue and developmental specific expression of murine smooth muscle γ-actin fusion genes in transgenic mice. Dev. Dyn. 207:135–144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren, W., G. Y. K. Ng, R.-X. Wang, P. H. Wu, B. F. O'Dowd, S. George, D. H. Osmond, and C. Liew. 1994. The identification of NP25: a novel protein that is differentially expressed by neuronal subpopulations. Mol. Brain Res. 22:173–185.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ross, R.. 1999. Mechanisms of disease: atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 340:115–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samaha, F. F., H. S. Ip, E. E. Morrisey, J. Seltzer, Z. Tang, J. Solway, and M. S. Parmacek. 1996. Developmental pattern of expression and genomic organization of the calponin-h1 gene; a contractile smooth muscle cell marker. J. Biol. Chem. 271:395–403.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz, S. M., and C. E. Murry. 1998. Proliferation and the monoclonal origins of atherosclerotic lesions. Annu. Rev. Med. 49:437–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanahan, C. M., N. R. B. Cary, J. C. Metcalfe, and P. L. Weissberg. 1994. High expression of genes for calcification-regulating proteins in human atherosclerotic plaques. J. Clin. Investig. 93:2393–2402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanahan, C. M., and P. L. Weissberg. 1997. Smooth muscle cell heterogeneity: Patterns of gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro and in vivo. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 183:333–338.
   Google Scholar
• Shanahan, C. M., P. L. Weissberg, and J. C. Metcalfe. 1993. Isolation of gene markers of differentiated and proliferating vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res. 73:193–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapland, C., J. J. Hsuan, N. F. Totty, and D. Lawson. 1993. Purification and properties of transgelin: a transformation and shape change sensitive actin-gelling protein. J. Cell Biol. 121:1065–1073.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapland, C., P. Lowings, and D. Lawson. 1988. Identification of new actin-associated polypeptides that are modified by viral transformation and changes in cell shape. J. Cell Biol. 107:153–161.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Small, J. V.. 1985. Geometry of actin-membrane attachments in the smooth muscle cell: the localisations of vinculin and α-actinin. EMBO J. 4:45–49.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Small, J. V., and M. Gimona. 1998. The cytoskeleton of the vertebrate smooth muscle cell. Acta Physiol. Scand. 164:341–348.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Small, J. V., and A. Sobieszek. 1977. Studies on the function and composition of the 10-nm (100-A) filaments of vertebrate smooth muscle. J. Cell Sci. 23:243–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solway, J., J. Seltzer, F. F. Samaha, S. Kim, L. E. Alger, Q. Niu, E. E. Morrisey, H. S. Ip, and M. S. Parmacek. 1995. Structure and expression of a smooth muscle cell-specific gene, SM22α. J. Biol. Chem. 270:13460–13469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi, K., and B. Nadal-Ginard. 1991. Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of smooth muscle calponin. J. Biol. Chem. 266:13284–13288.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thweatt, R., C. K. Lumpkin, and S. Goldstein. 1992. A novel gene encoding a smooth muscle protein is overexpressed in senescent human fibroblasts. Biochem. Biophys. Commun. 187:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tybulewicz, V. L. J., C. E. Crawford, P. K. Jackson, R. T. Bronson, and R. C. Mulligan. 1991. Neonatal lethality and lymphopenia in mice with a homozygous disruption of the c-abl proto-oncogene. Cell 65:1153–1163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar