Gas6 Induces Growth, β-Catenin Stabilization, and T-Cell Factor Transcriptional Activation in Contact-Inhibited C57 Mammary Cells

REFERENCES

• Aberle, H., A. Bauer, J. Stappert, A. Kispert, and R. Kemler. 1997. beta-catenin is a target for the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. EMBO J. 16:3797–3804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alessi, D. R., A. Cuenda, P. Cohen, D. T. Dudley, and A. R. Saltiel. 1995. PD098059 is a specific inhibitor of the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase in vitro e in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 270:27489–27494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, M. P., C. Zeng, K. Schneider, X. Xiong, M. K. Meintzer, P. Bellosta, C. Basilico, B. Varnum, K. A. Heidenreich, and M. E. Wierman. 1999. Growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6)/adhesion related kinase (Ark) signaling promotes gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuronal survival via extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt. Mol. Endocrinol. 13:191–201.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barker, N., P. J. Morin, and H. Clevers. 2000. The Yin-Yang of TCF/beta-catenin signaling. Adv. Cancer Res. 77:1–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnard, D., H. Sun, L. Baker, and M. S. Marshall. 1998. In vitro inhibition of Ras-Raf association by short peptides. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 247:176–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baserga, R.. 1994. Oncogenes and the strategy of growth factors. Cell 79:927–930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrens, J., L. Vakaet, R. Friis, E. Winterhager, F. Van Roy, M. M. Mareel, and W. Birchmeier. 1993. Loss of epithelial differentiation and gain of invasiveness correlates with tyrosine phosphorylation of the E-cadherin/beta-catenin complex in cells transformed with a temperature-sensitive v-SRC gene. J. Cell Biol. 120:757–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrens, J., J. P. von Kries, M. Kuhl, L. Bruhn, D. Wedlich, R. Grosschedl, and W. Birchmeier. 1996. Functional interaction of beta-catenin with the transcription factor LEF-1. Nature 382:638–642.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellosta, P., M. Costa, D. A. Lin, and C. Basilico. 1995. The receptor tyrosine kinase ARK mediates cell aggregation by homophilic binding. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:614–625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellosta, P., Q. Zhang, S. P. Goff, and C. Basilico. 1997. Signaling through the ARK tyrosine kinase receptor protects from apoptosis in the absence of growth stimulation. Oncogene 15:2387–2397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Ze'ev, A., and B. Geiger. 1998. Differential molecular interactions of β-catenin and plakoglobin in adhesion, signaling and cancer. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 10:629–639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasband, A., B. Schryver, and J. Papkoff. 1992. The biochemical properties and transforming potential of human Wnt-2 are similar to Wnt-1. Oncogene 7:153–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady, M. J., F. J. Bourbonais, and A. R. Saltiel. 1998. The activation of glycogen synthase by insulin switches from kinase inhibition to phosphatase activation during adipogenesis in 3T3–L1 cells. J. Biol. Chem. 273:14063–14066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braunger, J., L. Schleithoff, A. S. Schulz, H. Kessler, R. Lammers, A. Ullrich, C. R. Bartram, and J. W. Janssen. 1997. Intracellular signaling of the Ufo/Axl receptor tyrosine kinase is mediated mainly by a multi-substrate docking-site. Oncogene 14:2619–2631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunner, E., O. Peter, L. Schweizer, and K. Basler. 1997. Pangolin encodes a Lef-1 homologue that acts downstream of Armadillo to transduce the Wingless signal in Drosophila. Nature 385:829–833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burchert, A., E. C. Attar, P. McCloskey, Y. W. Fridell, and E. T. Liu. 1998. Determinants for transformation induced by the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase. Oncogene 16:3177–3187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgering, B. M., and P. J. Coffer. 1995. Protein kinase B (c-Akt) in phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase signal transduction. Nature 376:599–603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, J. K., K. Carey, and P. J. Godowski. 1997. Identification of Gas6 as a ligand for Mer, a neural cell adhesion molecule related receptor tyrosine kinase implicated in cellular transformation. Oncogene 14:2033–2039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung, J., C. J. Kuo, G. R. Crabtree, and J. Blenis. 1992. Rapamycin-FKBP specifically blocks growth-dependent activation of and signaling by the 70 kd S6 protein kinases. Cell 69:1227–1236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, D., M. J. Fry, K. Hughes, R. Sumathipala, J. R. Woodgett, and T. C. Dale. 1996. Wingless inactivates glycogen synthase kinase-3 via an intracellular signalling pathway which involves a protein kinase C. EMBO J. 15:4526–4536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craven, R. J., L. Xu, T. M. Weiner, Y.-W. Fridell, G. A. Dent, S. Srivastava, B. Varnum, E. T. Liu, and W. C. Cance. 1995. Receptor tyrosine kinases expressed in metastatic colon cancer. Int. J. Cancer 60:791–797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross, D. A., D. R. Alessi, J. R. Vandenheede, H. E. McDowell, H. S. Hundal, and P. Cohen. 1994. The inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 by insulin or insulin-like growth factor 1 in the rat skeletal muscle cell line L6 is blocked by wortmannin, but not by rapamycin: evidence that wortmannin blocks activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in L6 cells between Ras and Raf. Biochem. J. 303:21–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross, D. A. E., D. R. Alessi, P. Cohen, M. Andjelkovich, and B. A. Hemmings. 1995. Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 by insulin mediated by protein kinase B. Nature 378:785–789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuenda, A., J. Rouse, Y. N. Doza, R. Meier, P. Cohen, T. F. Gallagher, P. R. Young, and J. C. Lee. 1995. SB 203580 is a specific inhibitor of a MAP kinase homologue which is stimulated by cellular stresses and interleukin-1. FEBS Lett. 364:229–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Datta, S. R., H. Dudek, X. Tao, S. Masters, H. Fu, Y. Gotoh, and M. E. Greenberg. 1997. Akt phosphorylation of BAD couples survival signals to the cell-intrinsic death machinery. Cell 91:231–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Datta, S. R., A. Brunet, and M. E. Greenberg. 1999. Cellular survival: a play in three Akts. Genes Dev. 13:2905–2927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Sal, G., M. E. Ruaro, L. Philipson, and C. Schneider. 1992. The growth arrest-specific gene, gas1, is involved in growth suppression. Cell 70:595–607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eldar-Finkelman, H., R. Seger, J. R. Vandenheede, and E. G. Krebs. 1995. Inactivation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 by epidermal growth factor is mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinase/p90 ribosomal protein S6 kinase signaling pathway in NIH/3T3 cells. J. Biol. Chem. 270:987–990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Embi, N., D. B. Rylatt, and P. Cohen. 1979. Glycogen synthase kinase-2 and phosphorylase kinase are the same enzyme. Eur. J. Biochem. 100:339–347.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Espada, J., M. Perez-Moreno, V. M. Braga, P. Rodriguez-Viciana, and A. Cano. 1999. H-Ras activation promotes cytoplasmic accumulation and phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase association of beta-catenin in epidermal keratinocytes. J. Cell Biol. 146:967–980.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franke, T. F., D. R. Kaplan, and L. W. Cantley. 1997. PI3K: downstream AKTion blocks apoptosis. Cell 88:435–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridell, Y. W., J. Villa Jr., E. C. Attar, and E. T. Liu. 1998. GAS6 induces Axl-mediated chemotaxis of vascular smooth muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem. 273:7123–7126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgescu, M. M., K. H. Kirsch, T. Akagi, T. Shishido, and H. Hanafusa. 1999. The tumor-suppressor activity of PTEN is regulated by its carboxyl-terminal region. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:10182–10187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godowski, P. J., M. R. Mark, J. Chen, M. D. Sadick, H. Raab, and R. G. Hammonds. 1995. Reevaluation of the roles of protein S and Gas6 as ligands for the receptor tyrosine kinase Rse/Tyro3. Cell 62:355–358.
   Google Scholar
• Goruppi, S., E. Ruaro, and C. Schneider. 1996. Gas6, the ligand of Axl tyrosine kinase receptor, has mitogenic and survival activities for serum starved NIH3T3 fibroblasts. Oncogene 12:471–480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goruppi, S., E. Ruaro, B. Varnum, and C. Schneider. 1997. Requirement of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent pathway and Src for Gas6-Axl mitogenic and survival activities in NIH3T3 fibroblasts. Mol. Cell. Biol. 17:4442–4453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goruppi, S., E. Ruaro, B. Varnum, and C. Schneider. 1999. Gas6-mediated survival in NIH3T3 cells activates stress signalling cascade and is independent of Ras. Oncogene 18:4224–4236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, D. K., T. L. Dawson, D. L. Mullaney, H. R. Snodgass, and H. S. Earp. 1994. Cloning and mRNA expression analysis of a novel human protooncogene, c-mer. Cell Growth Differ. 5:647–657.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gumbiner, B. M.. 1995. Signal transduction of beta-catenin. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 7:634–640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gumbiner, B. M.. 1996. Cell adhesion: the molecular basis of tissue architecture and morphogenesis. Cell 84:345–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, M., and A. H. Bruce. 1999. Cell proliferation and apoptosis. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 11:745–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, T. C., A. B. Sparks, C. Rago, H. Hermeking, L. Zawel, L. T. da Costa, P. J. Morin, B. Vogelstein, and K. W. Kinzler. 1998. Identification of c-MYC as a target of the APC pathway. Science 281:1509–1512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hengst, L., and S. I. Reed. 1996. Translational control of p27Kip1 accumulation during the cell cycle. Science 271:1861–1864.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinck, L., I. S. Nathke, J. Papkoff, and W. J. Nelson. 1994. Dynamics of cadherin/catenin complex formation: novel protein interaction and pathways of complex assembly. J. Cell Biol. 125:1327–1340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen, J. W. G., A. S. Schultz, A. C. N. Steendoorden, M. Schmidberger, S. Strehl, P. F. Ambros, and C. R. Bartram. 1991. A novel putative tyrosine kinase receptor with oncogenic potential. Oncogene 6:2113–2120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia, R., and H. Hanafusa. 1994. The proto-oncogene of v-eyk (v-ryk) is a novel receptor type protein tyrosine kinase with extracellular Ig/FNIII domains. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1839–1844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jue, S. F., R. S. Bradley, J. A. Rudnicki, H. E. Varmus, and A. M. C. Brown. 1992. The mouse Wnt-1 gene can act via a paracrine mechanism in transformation of mammary epithelial cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12:321–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kikuchi, A.. 2000. Regulation of beta-catenin signaling in the Wnt pathway. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 268:243–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korinek, V., N. Barker, P. J. Morin, D. van Wichen, R. de Weger, K. W. Kinzler, B. Vogelstein, and H. Clevers. 1997. Constitutive transcriptional activation by a beta-catenin-Tcf complex in APC−/− colon carcinoma. Science 275:1784–1787.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, C., and G. Lemke. 1991. An extended family of protein tyrosine kinase genes differentially expressed in the vertebrate nervous system. Neuron 6:691–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, C., M. Gore, and G. Lemke. 1994. Structure, expression, and activity of Tyro 3, a neural adhesion-related receptor tyrosine kinase. Oncogene 9:2567–2678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lan, Z., H. Wu, W. Li, S. Wu, L. Lu, M. Xu, and W. Dai. 2000. Transforming activity of receptor tyrosine kinase tyro3 is mediated, at least in part, by the PI3 kinase-signaling pathway. Blood 95:633–638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, W.-P., Y. Liao, D. Robinson, H.-J. Kung, E. T. Liu, and M.-C. Hung. 1999. Axl-Gas6 interaction counteracts E1A-mediated cell growth suppression and proapoptotic activity. Mol. Cell. Biol. 19:8075–8082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, R., J. Chen, G. Hammonds, H. Philips, M. Armanini, P. Wood, R. Bunge, P. J. Godowski, M. X. Slikowsky, and J. P. Mather. 1996. Identification of Gas6 as a growth factor for human Schwann cells. J. Neurosci. 16:2012–2019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, Q., M. Gore, Q. Zhang, T. Camenisch, S. Boast, F. Casagranda, C. Lai, M. K. Skinner, R. Klein, G. K. Matsushima, H. S. Earp, S. P. Goff, and G. Lemke. 1999. Tyro-3 family receptors are essential regulators of mammalian spermatogenesis. Nature 398:723–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manfioletti, G., C. Brancolini, G. Avanzi, and C. Schneider. 1993. The protein encoded by a growth arrest-specific gene (gas6) is a new member of the vitamin K-dependent proteins related to protein S, a negative coregulator in the blood coagulation cascade. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13:4976–4985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mark, M. R., J. Chen, R. J. Hammonds, M. Sadick, and P. J. Godowsky. 1996. Characterization of gas6, a member of the superfamily of G domain-containing proteins, as ligand for Rse and Axl. J. Biol. Chem. 271:9785–9789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuyoshi, N., M. Hamaguchi, S. Taniguchi, A. Nagafuchi, S. Tsukita, and M. Takeichi. 1992. Cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion is perturbed by v-src tyrosine phosphorylation in metastatic fibroblasts. J. Cell Biol. 118:703–714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCloskey, P., Y. W. Fridell, E. Attar, J. Villa, Y. Jin, B. Varnum, and E. T. Liu. 1997. GAS6 mediates adhesion of cells expressing the receptor tyrosine kinase Axl. J. Biol. Chem. 272:23285–23291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCrea, P. D., and B. M. Gumbiner. 1991. Purification of a 92-kDa cytoplasmic protein tightly associated with the cell-cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin (uvomorulin). Characterization and extractability of the protein complex from the cell cytostructure. J. Biol. Chem. 266:4514–4520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miho, Y., Y. Kouroku, E. Fujita, T. Mukasa, K. Urase, T. Kasahara, A. Isoai, M. Y. Momoi, and T. Momoi. 1999. bFGF inhibits the activation of caspase-3 and apoptosis of P19 embryonal carcinoma cells during neuronal differentiation. Cell Death Differ. 6:463–470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molloy, C. J., D. P. Bottaro, T. P. Fleming, M. S. Marshall, J. B. Gibbs, and S. A. Aaronson. 1989. PDGF induction of tyrosine phosphorylation of GTPase activating protein. Nature 342:711–714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin, P. J., A. B. Sparks, V. Korinek, N. Barker, H. Clevers, B. Vogelstein, and K. W. Kinzler. 1997. Activation of beta-catenin-Tcf signaling in colon cancer by mutations in beta-catenin or APC. Science 275:1787–1790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin, P. J.. 1999. beta-catenin signaling and cancer. BioEssays 21:1021–1030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura, T., F. Hamada, T. Ishidate, K. Anai, K. Kawahara, K. Toyoshima, and T. Akiyama. 1998. Axin, an inhibitor of the Wnt signalling pathway, interacts with beta-catenin, GSK-3beta and APC and reduces the beta-catenin level. Genes Cells 3:395–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakano, T., K. Higashino, N. Kikuci, J. Kishino, K. Nomura, H. Fujita, O. Ohara, and H. Arita. 1995. Vascular smooth muscle cell-derived, Gla-containing growth-potentiating factor for Ca(2+)-mobilizing growth factors. J. Biol. Chem. 270:5702–5705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakano, T., K. Kawamoto, K. Higashino, and H. Arita. 1996. Prevention of growth arrest-induced cell death of vascular smooth muscle cells by a product of growth arrest-specific gene, gas6. FEBS Lett. 387:78–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nusse, R.. 1997. A versatile transcriptional effector of Wingless signaling. Cell 89:321–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Brian, C. A., N. E. Ward, K. R. Gravitt, and K. P. Gupta. 1995. The tumor promoter receptor protein kinase C: a novel target for chemoprevention and therapy of human colon cancer. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 391:117–120.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Bryan, J. P., R. A. Frye, P. C. Cogswell, A. Neubauer, B. Kitch, C. Prokop, R. Espinosa III, M. M. Le Beau, H. S. Earp, and E. T. Liu. 1991. axl, a transforming gene isolated from primary human myeloid leukemia cells, encodes a novel receptor tyrosine kinase. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11:5016–5031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohashi, K., K. Mizuno, K. Kuma, T. Miyata, and T. Nakamura. 1994. Cloning of the cDNA for a novel receptor tyrosine kinase, Sky, predominantly expressed in brain. Oncogene 9:699–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orford, K., C. C. Orford, and S. W. Byers. 1999. Exogenous expression of beta-catenin regulates contact inhibition, anchorage-independent growth, anoikis, and radiation-induced cell cycle arrest. J. Cell Biol. 146:855–868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papkoff, J., and M. Aikawa. 1998. WNT-1 and HGF regulate GSK3 beta activity and beta-catenin signaling in mammary epithelial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 247:851–858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peifer, M., L. M. Pai, and M. Casey. 1994. Phosphorylation of the Drosophila adherens junction protein Armadillo: roles for wingless signal and zeste-white 3 kinase. Dev. Biol. 166:543–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peifer, M.. 1997. Beta-catenin as oncogene: the smoking gun. Science 275:1752–1753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polakis, P.. 1999. The oncogenic activation of beta-catenin. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 9:15–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rescigno, J., A. Mansukhani, and C. Basilico. 1991. A putative receptor tyrosine kinase with unique structural topology. Oncogene 6:1909–1913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubinfeld, B., B. Souza, I. Albert, O. Muller, S. H. Chamberlain, F. R. Masiarz, S. Munemitsu, and P. Polakis. 1993. Association of the APC gene product with beta-catenin. Science 262:1731–1734.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubinfeld, B., P. Robbins, M. El-Gamil, I. Albert, E. Porfiri, and P. Polakis. 1997. Stabilization of beta-catenin by genetic defects in melanoma cell lines. Science 275:1790–1792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rylatt, D. B., A. Aitken, T. Bilham, G. D. Condon, N. Embi, and P. Cohen. 1980. Glycogen synthase from rabbit skeletal muscle. Amino acid sequence at the sites phosphorylated by glycogen synthase kinase-3, and extension of the N-terminal sequence containing the site phosphorylated by phosphorylase kinase. Eur. J. Biochem. 107:529–537.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saito, Y., J. R. Vandenheede, and P. Cohen. 1994. The mechanism by which epidermal growth factor inhibits glycogen synthase kinase 3 in A431 cells. Biochem. J. 303:27–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimizu, H., M. A. Julius, M. Giarre, Z. Zheng, A. M. Brown, and J. Kitajewski. 1997. Transformation by Wnt family proteins correlates with regulation of beta-catenin. Cell Growth Differ. 8:1349–1358.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shtutman, M., J. Zhurinsky, I. Simcha, C. Albanese, M. D'Amico, R. Pestell, and A. Ben-Ze'ev. 1999. The cyclin D1 gene is a target of the beta-catenin/LEF-1 pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:5522–5527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stambolic, V., and J. R. Woodgett. 1994. Mitogen inactivation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta in intact cells via serine 9 phosphorylation. Biochem. J. 303:701–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su, L. K., B. Vogelstein, and K. W. Kinzler. 1993. Association of the APC tumor suppressor protein with catenins. Science 262:1734–1737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, I. C., S. Roy, P. Yaswen, M. R. Stampfer, and H. E. Varmus. 1995. Mouse mammary tumors express elevated levels of RNA encoding the murine homology of SKY, a putative receptor tyrosine kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 270:6872–6880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ui, M., T. Okada, K. Hazeki, and O. Hazeki. 1995. Wortmannin as a unique probe for an intracellular signalling protein, phosphoinositide 3-kinase. Trends Biochem. Sci. 20:303–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varnum, B. C., C. Young, G. Elliott, A. Garcia, T. D. Bartley, Y. W. Fridell, R. W. Hunt, G. Trail, C. Clogson, R. J. Toso, D. Yanagihara, L. Bennett, M. Sylber, L. A. Merewether, A. Tseng, E. Escobar, E. T. Liu, and H. K. Yamane. 1995. Axl receptor tyrosine kinase stimulated by the vitamin K-dependent protein encoded by the growth-arrest-specific gene gas6. Nature 373:623–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waltzer, L., and M. Bienz. 1999. The control of beta-catenin and TCF during embryonic development and cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 18:231–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh, G. I., and C. G. Proud. 1993. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 is rapidly inactivated in response to insulin and phosphorylates eukaryotic initiation factor eIF-2B. Biochem J. 294:625–629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehead, I., H. Kirk, and R. Kay. 1995. Expression cloning of oncogenes by retroviral transfer of cDNA libraries. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15:704–710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willert, K., and R. Nusse. 1998. β-catenin: a key mediator of wnt signaling. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 8:95–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, C. S., M. Kitamura, S. Hardy, and J. Kitajewski. 1998. Wnt-1 induces growth, cytosolic β-catenin, and Tcf/Lef transcriptional activation in Rat-1 fibroblasts. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18:2474–2485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar