Dosage-Dependent Effects of Akt1/Protein Kinase Bα (PKBα) and Akt3/PKBγ on Thymus, Skin, and Cardiovascular and Nervous System Development in Mice

REFERENCES

• Alessi, D., M. Andjelkovic, B. Caudwell, P. Cron, N. Morrice, P. Cohen, and B. A. Hemmings. 1996. Mechanism of activation of protein kinase B by insulin and IGF1. EMBO J. 15:6541–6551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altomare, D. A., G. E. Lyons, Y. Mitsuuchi, J. Q. Cheng, and J. R. Testa. 1998. Akt2 mRNA is highly expressed in embryonic brown fat and the AKT2 kinase is activated by insulin. Oncogene 16:2407–2411.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brazil, D. P., and B. A. Hemmings. 2001. Ten years of protein kinase B signalling: a hard Akt to follow. Trends Biochem. Sci. 26:657–664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgering, B. M., and P. J. Coffer. 1995. Protein kinase B (c-Akt) in phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase signal transduction. Nature 376:599–602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, W. S., P.-Z. Xu, K. Gottlob, M.-L. Chen, K. Sokol, T. Shiyanova, I. Roninson, W. Weng, R. Suzuki, K. Tobe, T. Kadowaki, and N. Hay. 2001. Growth retardation and increased apoptosis in mice with homozygous disruption of the akt1 gene. Genes Dev. 15:2203–2208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien, K. R., and E. N. Olson. 2002. Converging pathways and principles in heart development and disease: CV@CSH. Cell 110:153–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, H., J. Mu, J. K. Kim, J. L. Thorvaldsen, Q. Chu, E. B. Crenshaw III, K. H. Kaestner, M. S. Bartolomei, G. I. Shulman, and M. J. Birnbaum. 2001. Insulin resistance and a diabetes mellitus-like syndrome in mice lacking the protein kinase Akt2 (PKBβ). Science 292:1728–1731.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, H., J. L. Thorvaldsen, Q. Chu, F. Feng, and M. J. Birnbaum. 2001. Akt1/PKBα is required for normal growth but dispensable for maintenance of glucose homeostasis in mice. J. Biol. Chem. 276:38349–38352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conway, S. J., A. Kruzynska-Frejtag, P. L. Kneer, M. Machnicki, and S. V. Koushik. 2003. What cardiovascular defect does my prenatal mouse mutant have, and why. Genesis 35:1–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Datta, S. R., A. Brunet, and M. E. Greenberg. 1999. Cellular survival: a play in three Akts. Genes Dev. 13:2905–2927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di-Poi, N., C. Y. Ng, N. S. Tan, Z. Yang, B. A. Hemmings, B. Desvergne, L. Michalik, and W. Wahli. 2005. Epithelium-mesenchyme interactions control the activity of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor β/δ during hair follicle development. Mol. Cell. Biol. 25:1696–1712.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudek, H., S. R. Datta, T. F. Franke, M. J. Birnbaum, R. Yao, G. M. Cooper, R. A. Segal, D. R. Kaplan, and M. E. Greenberg. 1997. Regulation of neuronal survival by the serine-threonine protein kinase Akt. Science 275:661–665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Easton, R. M., H. Cho, K. Roovers, D. W. Shineman, M. Mizrahi, M. S. Forman, V. M.-Y. Lee, M. Szabolcs, R. de Jong, T. Oltersdorf, T. Ludwig, A. Efstratiadis, and M. J. Birnbaum. 2005. Role for Akt3/protein kinase Bγ in attainment of normal brain size. Mol. Cell. Biol. 25:1869–1878.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng, J., R. Tamaskovic, Z. Yang, D. P. Brazil, A. Merlo, D. Hess, and B. A. Hemmings. 2004. Stabilization of Mdm2 via decreased ubiquitination is mediated by protein kinase B/Akt-dependent phosphorylation. J. Biol. Chem. 279:35510–35517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franke, T. F., S. I. Yang, T. O. Chan, K. Datta, A. Kazlauskas, D. K. Morrison, D. R. Kaplan, and P. N. Tsichlis. 1995. The protein kinase encoded by the Akt proto-oncogene is a target of the PDGF-activated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Cell 81:727–736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garofalo, R. S., S. J. Orena, K. Rafidi, A. J. Torchia, J. L. Stock, A. L. Hildebrandt, T. Coskran, S. C. Black, D. J. Brees, J. R. Wicks, J. D. McNeish, and K. G. Coleman. 2003. Severe diabetes, age-dependent loss of adipose tissue, and mild growth deficiency in mice lacking Akt2/PKBβ. J. Clin. Investig. 112:197–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanada, M., J. Feng, and B. A. Hemmings. 2004. Structure, regulation and function of PKB/AKT-a major therapeutic target. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta Proteins Proteom. 1697:3–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, P., T. Jakubowicz, F. Pitossi, F. Maurer, and B. Hemmings. 1991. Molecular cloning and identification of a serine/threonine protein kinase of the second-messenger subfamily. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:4171–4175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawlor, M. A., and D. R. Alessi. 2001. PKB/Akt: a key mediator of cell proliferation, survival and insulin responses. J. Cell Sci. 114:2903–2910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, C., W. Liu, J. Palie, M. F. Lu, N. A. Brown, and J. F. Martin. 2002. Pitx2c patterns anterior myocardium and aortic arch vessels and is required for local cell movement into atrioventricular cushions. Development 129:5081–5091.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Papaioannou, V. E., and R. R. Behringer. 2005. Mouse phenotypes, a handbook of mutation analysis. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
   Google Scholar
• Peng, X.-d., P.-Z. Xu, M.-L. Chen, A. Hahn-Windgassen, J. Skeen, J. Jacobs, D. Sundararajan, W. S. Chen, S. E. Crawford, K. G. Coleman, and N. Hay. 2003. Dwarfism, impaired skin development, skeletal muscle atrophy, delayed bone development, and impeded adipogenesis in mice lacking Akt1 and Akt2. Genes Dev. 17:1352–1365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheid, M. P., and J. R. Woodgett. 2001. PKB/AKT: functional insights from genetic models. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2:760–768.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stainier, D. Y., R. K. Lee, and M. C. Fishman. 1994. Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1/CD31): alternatively spliced, functionally distinct isoforms expressed during mammalian cardiovascular development. Development 120:2539–2553.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tschopp, O., Z.-Z. Yang, D. Brodbeck, B. Duemmler, M. Hemmings-Mieszczak, T. Watanabe, T. Michaelis, J. Frahm, and B. A. Hemmings. 2005. Essential role of protein kinase Bγ (PKBγ/Akt3) in postnatal brain development, but not for glucose homeostasis. Development 132:2943–2954.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe, N., Y. H. Wang, H. K. Lee, T. Ito, Y. H. Wang, W. Cao, and Y. J. Liu. 2005. Hassall's corpuscles instruct dendritic cells to induce CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in human thymus. Nature 436:1181–1185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Z.-Z., O. Tschopp, A. Baudry, B. Duemmler, D. Hynx, and B. A. Hemmmngs. 2004. Physiological function of PKB/Akt. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 32:350–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Z.-Z., O. Tschopp, M. Hemmings-Mieszczak, J. Feng, D. Brodbeck, E. Perentes, and B. A. Hemmings. 2003. Protein kinase Bα/Akt1 regulates placental development and fetal growth. J. Biol. Chem. 278:32124–32131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan, J., M. Lipinski, and A. Degterev. 2003. Diversity in the mechanisms of neuronal cell death. Neuron 40:301–413.
   Google Scholar
• Yuan, J., and B. A. Yankner. 2000. Apoptosis in the nervous system. Nature 407:802–809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar