The Distal Enhancer Implicated in the Developmental Regulation of the Tyrosine Aminotransferase Gene Is Bound by Liver-Specific and Ubiquitous Factors

REFERENCES

• Becker, P. B., S. Ruppert, and G. Schutz. 1987. Genomic footprinting reveals cell type-specific DNA binding of ubiquitous factors. Cell 51:435–443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, P. B., and G. Schutz. 1988. Genomic footprinting. p. 1–19. In J. K. Setlow (ed.), Genetic engineering, principles and methods, vol. 10. Plenum Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Beermann, F., E. Hummler, E. Schmid, and G. Schutz. Perinatal activation of a tyrosine aminotransferase fusion gene does not occur in albino lethal mice. Mech. Dev., in press.
   Google Scholar
• Benezra, R., R. L. Davis, D. Lockshon, D. L. Turner, and H. Weintraub. 1990. The protein Id: a negative regulator of helix-loop-helix DNA binding proteins. Cell 61:49–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bird, A. 1992. The essentials of DNA methylation. Cell 70:5–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boshart, M., M. Kluppel, A. Schmidt, G. Schutz, and B. Luckow. 1991. Reporter constructs with low background activity utilizing the cat gene. Gene 110:129–130.
   Google Scholar
• Boshart, M., F. Weih, A. Schmidt, R. E. K. Fournier, and G. Schutz. 1990. A cyclic AMP response element mediates repression of tyrosine aminotransferase gene expression by the tissue-specific extinguisher locus Tse-1. Cell 61:905–916.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen, E. Y., and P. H. Seeburg. 1985. Supercoil sequencing: a fast and simple method for sequencing plasmid DNA. DNA 4:165–170.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cheyette, T. E., T. Ip, S. Faber, Y. Matsui, and R. Chalkley. 1992. Characterization of the factors binding to a PEPCK gene upstream hypersensitive site with LCR activity. Nucleic Acids Res. 20:3427–3433.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chu, G., H. Hayakawa, and P. Berg. 1987. Electroporation for the efficient transfection of mammalian cells with DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 15:1311–1326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa, R. H., D. R. Grayson, and J. E. Darnell. 1989. Multiple hepatocyte-enriched nuclear factors function in the regulation of transthyretin and al-antitrypsin genes. Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:1415–1425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Descombes, P. M., M. Chojkier, S. Lichtsteiner, E. Falvey, and U. Schibler. 1990. LAP, a novel member of the C/EBP gene family, encodes a liver-enriched transcriptional activator protein. Genes Dev. 4:1541–1551.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Descombes, P. M., and U. Schibler. 1991. A liver-enriched transcriptional activator protein, LAP, and a transcriptional inhibitory protein, LIP, are translated from the same mRNA. Cell 67:569–579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Simone, V., and R. Cortese. 1991. Transcriptional regulation of liver-specific gene expression. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 3:960–965.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Wet, J. R., K. V. Wood, M. DeLuca, D. R. Helinski, and S. Subramani. 1987. Firefly luciferase gene: structure and expression in mammalian cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7:725–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dignam, J. D., R. M. Lebovitz, and R. G. Roeder. 1983. Accurate transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II in a soluble extract from isolated mammalian nuclei. Nucleic Acids Res. 11:1475–1489.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felsenfeld, G. 1992. Chromatin as an essential part of the transcriptional mechanism. Nature (London) 355:219–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fromm, M., L. P. Taylor, and V. Walbot. 1985. Expression of genes transferred into monocot and dicot plant cells by electro-poration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:5824–5828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganss, R., F. Weih, and G. Schutz. Unpublished data.
   Google Scholar
• Glass, C. K., O. V. Devary, and M. G. Rosenfeld. 1990. Multiple cell type-specific proteins differentially regulate target sequence recognition by the a retinoic acid receptor. Cell 63:729–738.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godbout, R., R. Ingram, and S. M. Tilghman. 1988. Fine-structure mapping of the three mouse α-fetoprotein gene enhancers. Mol. Cell. Biol. 8:1169–1178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez, G. A., and M. R. Montminy. 1989. Cyclic AMP stimulates somatostatin gene transcription by phosphorylation of CREB at serine 133. Cell 59:675–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorman, C. M., L. F. Moffat, and B. H. Howard. 1982. Recombinant genomes which express chloramphenicol acetyl-transferase in mammalian cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2:1044–1051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grange, T., J. Roux, G. Rigaud, and R. Pictet. 1991. Cell-type-specific activity of two glucocorticoid responsive units of rat tyrosine aminotransferase gene is associated with multiple binding sites for C/EBP and a novel liver-specific nuclear factor. Nucleic Acids Res. 19:131–139.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Granner, D. K., and E. G. Beale. 1985. Regulation of the synthesis of tyrosine aminotransferase and phosphoenolpyru-vate carboxykinase by glucocorticoid hormones. p. 89–138. In G. Litwack (ed.), Biochemical actions of hormones XII. Academic Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Greengard, O.. 1970. The developmental formation of enzymes in rat liver. p. 53–85. In G. Litwack (ed.), Mechanisms of hormone action, vol. 1. Academic Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Hammer, R. E., R. Krumlauf, S. A. Camper, R. L. Brinster, and S. M. Tilghman. 1987. Diversity of alpha-fetoprotein gene expression in mice is generated by a combination of separate enhancer elements. Science 235:53–58.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hargrove, J. L., and D. K. Granner. 1985. Biosynthesis and intracellular processing of tyrosine aminotransferase. p. 511–532. In P. Christen and P. E. Metzler (ed.), Transaminases. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
   Google Scholar
• Hashimoto, S., W. Schmid, and G. Schutz. 1984. Transcriptional activation of the rat liver tyrosine aminotransferase gene by cAMP. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:6637–6641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter, T., and M. Karin. 1992. The regulation of transcription by phosphorylation. Cell 70:375–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ip, T. V., D. Poon, D. Stone, D. K. Granner, and R. Chalkley. 1990. Interaction of a liver-specific factor with an enhancer 4.8 kilobases upstream of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10:3770–3781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jantzen, H.-M., U. Strahle, B. Gloss, F. Stewart, W. Schmid, M. Boshart, R. Miksicek, and G. Schutz. 1987. Cooperativity of glucocorticoid response elements located far upstream of the tyrosine aminotransferase gene. Cell 49:29–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, P. F., and S. L. McKnight. 1989. Eukaryotic transcriptional regulatory proteins. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 58:799–839.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kastner, K., and G. Schutz. Unpublished data.
   Google Scholar
• Killary, A. M., and R. E. K. Fournier. 1984. A genetic analysis of extinction: trans-dominant loci regulate expression of liver-specific traits in hepatoma hybrid cells. Cell 38:523–534.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Killary, A. M., T. G. Lugo, and R. E. K. Fournier. 1984. Isolation of thymidine kinase deficient rat hepatoma cells by selection with bromo-deoxyuridine, Hoechst 33258, and visible light. Biochem. Genet. 22:201–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuo, C. J., P. B. Conley, L. Chen, F. M. Sladek, J. E. Darnell, Jr., and G. R. Crabtree. 1992. A transcriptional hierarchy involved in mammalian cell-type specification. Nature (London) 355:457–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, E., V. R. Prezioso, E. Smith, O. Litvin, R. H. Costa, and J. E. Darnell, Jr. 1990. HNF-3A, a hepatocyte-enriched transcription factor of novel structure is regulated transcriptionally. Genes Dev. 4:1427–1436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, E., V. R. Prezioso, W. Tao, W. S. Chen, and J. E. Darnell, Jr. 1991. Hepatocyte nuclear factor 3a belongs to a gene family in mammals that is homologous to the Drosophila homeotic gene fork head. Genes Dev. 5:416–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landschulz, W. H., P. F. Johnson, E. Y. Adashi, B. J. Graves, and S. L. McKnight. 1988. Isolation of a recombinant copy of the gene encoding C/EBP. Genes Dev. 2:786–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, W., P. Mitchell, and R. Tjian. 1987. Purified transcription factor AP-1 interacts with TPA-inducible enhancer elements. Cell 49:741–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewin, B. 1990. Commitment and activation at Pol II promoters: a tail of protein-protein interactions. Cell 61:1161–1164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maniatis, T., S. Goodbourn, and J. A. Fischer. 1987. Regulation of inducible and tissue-specific gene expression. Science 236:1237–1245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxam, A. M., and W. Gilbert. 1980. Sequencing end-labeled DNA with base-specific chemical cleavages. Methods Enzymol. 65:499–560.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mueller, C. R., P. Maire, and U. Schibler. 1990. DBP, a liver-enriched transcriptional activator, is expressed late in ontogeny and its tissue specificity is determined posttranscrip-tionally. Cell 61:279–291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller, G., S. Ruppert, E. Schmid, and G. Schutz. 1988. Functional analysis of alternatively spliced tyrosinase gene transcripts. EMBO J. 7:2723–2730.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nichols, M., F. Weih, W. Schmid, C. DeVack, E. Kowenz-Leutz, B. Luckow, M. Boshart, and G. Schutz. 1992. Phosphorylation of CREB affects its binding to high and low affinity sites: implications for cAMP induced gene transcription. EMBO J. 11:3337–3346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nitsch, D. 1991. Ph.D. thesis. Fachbereich Biologie. Universitat Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Nitsch, D., M. Boshart, and G. Schutz. Activation of the tyrosine aminotransferase gene is dependent on synergy between liver-specific and hormone-responsive elements. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, in press.
   Google Scholar
• Nitsch, D., M. Boshart, and G. Schutz. 1993. Extinction of tyrosine aminotransferase gene activity in somatic cell hybrids involves modification and loss of several essential transcriptional activators. Genes Dev. 7:308–319.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nitsch, D., S. Ruppert, G. Kelsey, A. Schedl, F. Weih, A. F. Stewart, U. Strahle, C. DeVack, A. Reik, M. Boshart, and G. Schutz. 1991. Hormonal and liver-specific control of expression of the tyrosine aminotransferase gene. p. 223–234. In P. Cohen and J. G. Foulkes (ed.), The hormonal control regulation of gene transcription. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., The Netherlands.
   Google Scholar
• Nitsch, D., A. F. Stewart, M. Boshart, R. Mestril, F. Weih, and G. Schutz. 1990. Chromatin structures of the rat tyrosine aminotransferase gene relate to the function of its cis-acting elements. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10:3334–3342.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Öfverstedt, L.-G., K. Hammarstrom, N. Balgobin, S. Hjerten, U. Pettersson, and J. Chattopadhyaya. 1984. Rapid and quantitative recovery of DNA fragments from gels by displacement electrophoresis (isotachophoresis). Biochim. Biophys. Acta 782:120–126.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pani, L., D. G. Overdier, A. Porcella, X. Qian, E. Lai, and R. H. Costa. 1992. Hepatocyte nuclear factor 3(3 contains two transcriptional activation domains, one of which is novel and conserved with the Drosophila fork head protein. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12:3723–3732.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pinkert, C. A., D. M. Ornitz, R. L. Brinster, and R. D. Palmiter. 1987. An albumin enhancer located 10 kb upstream functions along with its promoter to direct efficient, liver-specific expression in transgenic mice. Genes Dev. 1:268–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reik, A., G. Schutz, and A. F. Stewart. 1991. Glucocorticoids are required for establishment and maintenance of an alteration in chromatin structure: induction leads to a reversible disruption of nucleosomes over an enhancer. EMBO J. 10:2569–2576.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rigaud, G., J. Roux, R. Pictet, and T. Grange. 1991. In vivo footprinting of rat TAT gene: dynamic interplay between the glucocorticoid receptor and a liver-specific factor. Cell 67:977–986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ron, D., and J. F. Habener. 1992. CHOP, a novel developmen-tally regulated nuclear protein that dimerizes with transcription factors C/EBP and LAP and functions as a dominant-negative inhibitor of gene transcription. Genes Dev. 6:439–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmid, E., W. Schmid, D. Mayer, B. Jastorff, and G. Schutz. 1987. Transcriptional activation of the tyrosine aminotransferase gene by glucocorticoids and cAMP in primary hepatocytes. Eur. J. Biochem. 165:499–506.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schreiber, E., P. Matthias, M. M. Muller, and W. Schaffher. 1989. Rapid detection of octamer binding proteins with "mini-extracts", prepared from a small number of cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 27:6419.
   Google Scholar
• Schubart, U. K. 1986. Regulation of gene expression in rat hepatocytes and hepatoma cells by insulin: quantitation of messenger ribonucleic acid's coding for tyrosine aminotransferase, tryptophan oxygenase, and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. Endocrinology 119:1741–1749.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sladek, F. M., and J. E. Darnell, Jr. 1992. Mechanisms of liver-specific gene expression. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2:256–259.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stewart, A. F., and G. Schutz. Unpublished data.
   Google Scholar
• Svoboda, J. 1960. Presence of a chicken tumor virus in the sarcoma of the adult rat inoculated after birth with Rous sarcoma virus. Nature (London) 186:980–981.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thompson, E. B., G. M. Tomkins, and J. F. Cumin. 1966. Induction of tyrosine α-ketoglutarate transaminase by steroid hormones in a newly established tissue culture cell line. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 56:296–303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian, J.-M., and U. Schibler. 1991. Tissue-specific expression of the gene encoding hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 may involve hepatocyte nuclear factor 4. Genes Dev. 5:2225–2234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treacy, M. N., X. He, and M. G. Rosenfeld. 1991. I-POU: a POU-domain protein that inhibits neuron-specific gene activation. Nature (London) 350:577–584.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsutsumi, K.-I., K. Ito, and K. Ishikawa. 1989. Developmental appearance of transcription factors that regulate liver-specific expression of the aldolase B gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:4923–4931.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weigel, D., and H. Jackie. 1990. The fork head domain: a novel DNA binding motif of eukaryotic transcription factors? Cell 63:455–456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weih, F., D. Nitsch, A. Reik, G. Schutz, and P. B. Becker. 1991. Analysis of CpG methylation and genomic footprinting at the tyrosine aminotransferase gene: DNA methylation alone is not sufficient to prevent protein binding in vivo. EMBO J. 10:2559–2567.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weih, F., A. F. Stewart, M. Boshart, D. Nitsch, and G. Schutz. 1990. In vivo monitoring of a cAMP-stimulated DNA-binding activity. Genes Dev. 4:1437–1449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weih, F., A. F. Stewart, and G. Schutz. 1988. A novel and rapid method to generate single stranded DNA probes for genomic footprinting. Nucleic Acids Res. 16:1628.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wildeman, A. G., P. Sassone-Corsi, T. Grundstrom, M. Zenke, and P. Chambon. 1984. Stimulation of in vitro transcription from SV40 early promoter by the enhancer involves a specific transacting factor. EMBO J. 3:3129–3133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaret, K. S., J.-K. Liu, and C. M. DiPersio. 1990. Site-directed mutagenesis reveals a liver transcription factor essential for the albumin transcriptional enhancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:5469–5473.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ziff, E. B. 1990. Transcription factors: a new family gathers at the cAMP response site. Trends Genet. 6:69–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar