References

• Annis R. 1996. Bonny Grove Farm and Dixon's Bank: Two Romano-British Settlement Sites in Cleveland. Durham Archaeological Journal, 12:41–60.
   Google Scholar
• Archaeological Services. 2005. Low lane, ingleby Barwick Archaeological Excavation ( unpublished interim report, Durham University).
   Google Scholar
• Archaeological Services. 2009. A64 Bedale, Aiskew and Leeming Bar Bypass, North Yorkshire. Archaeological Evaluation Works ( unpublished interim report, Durham University).
   Google Scholar
• Archaeological Services. 2010. The Binchester International Fieldschool: Interim Report 2009–10 ( unpublished interim report, Durham University).
   Google Scholar
• Archaeological Services. 2011. The Binchester International Fieldschool: Interim Report 2010–11 ( unpublished interim report, Durham University).
   Google Scholar
• Bell H., Martin V., Turner E., Van Bercham D. 1962. The Abinnaeus Archive: Papers of a Roman Officer in the Reign of Constantius II. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bidwell P. 1985. The Roman Fort of Vindolanda at Chesterholm, Northumberland. London: Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England.
   Google Scholar
• Bidwell P., Speak S. 1994. Excavations at South Shields Roman Fort. Newcastle upon Tyne: Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne.
   Google Scholar
• Bidwell P., Hodgson N. 2009. The Roman Army in Northern England. South Shields: Arbeia Society.
   Google Scholar
• Birley A. 2002. Garrison Life at Vindolanda. Stroud: Tempus.
   Google Scholar
• Black E.W. 1994. Villa-Owners, Romano-British Gentlemen and Officers. Britannia, 25:99–110.
   Google Scholar
• Bowman A. 2003. Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier: Vindolanda and its People. London: British Museum.
   Google Scholar
• Breeze D. 2006. Handbook to the Roman Wall, fourth edition. Newcastle: Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne.
   Google Scholar
• Breeze D., Dobson B. 2000. Hadrian's Wall. London: Penguin Books.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer R. 1990. Caerwent-Venta Silurum: a Civitas-Capital. In: , Burnham B., Davies J., eds. Conquest, Coexistance and Change: Recent Work in Roman Wales. Lampeter: Trivium, pp. 75–85.
   Google Scholar
• Casey P.J. 1993a. The End of the Fort Garrisons on Hadrian's Wall: A Hypothetical Model. In: , Vallet F., Kazanski M., eds. L'Armée Romaine et les Barbares du IIIe au VIIe siècle. Rouen: l'Association Française d'Archéologie Mérovingienne et du Musée des Antiquités Nationales, pp. 259–68.
   Google Scholar
• Casey P.J. 1993b. The End of Garrisons on Hadrian's Wall: An Historic-Environmental Model. In: , Clark D., Roxan M., Wilkes J., eds. The Later Roman Empire Today. London: University College of London, Institute of Archaeology Publications, pp. 69–80.
   Google Scholar
• Collingwood R.G., Wright R.P. 1965. The Roman Inscriptions of Britain – Vol. I Inscriptions on Stone. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Collins R. 2010. Brooch Use in the fourth- to fifth-Century Frontier. In: , Collins R., Allason-Jones L., eds. Finds from the Frontier: Material Culture in the Fourth-Fifth Centuries AD. York: Council for British Archaeology. CBA Research Report 162, pp. 64–78.
   Google Scholar
• Collins R. 2011. Military Communities and the Transformation of the Frontier from the fourth to sixth Centuries. In: , Petts D., Turner S., eds. Early Medieval Northumbria: New Visions and New Directions. Studies in the Early Middle Ages 24. Brepols: Turnhout, pp. 15–35.
   Google Scholar
• Collins R. 2012. Hadrian's Wall and the End of Empire: The Roman Frontier in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Cool H., Mason D. 2008. Roman Piercebridge: Excavations by D.W. Harding and Peter Scott 1969–1981. Durham: Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland.
   Google Scholar
• Dark K.R. 1994. Civitas to Kingdom: British Political Continuity 300–800. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dark K.R. 2000. Britain and the End of the Roman Empire. Stroud: Tempus.
   Google Scholar
• Dobney K. 2001. A Place at the Table: The Role of Zooarchaeology within a Roman Research Agenda. In: , James S., Millett M., eds. Romans and Britons: Advancing an Archaeological Agenda. York: Council for British Archaeology. CBA Research Report 125, pp. 36–45.
   Google Scholar
• Dobney K., Kenward H., Ottaway P.J., Donel L. 1998. Down, But Not Out: Biological Evidence for Complex Economic Organization in Lincoln in the Late Fourth Century. Antiquity, 72:417–24.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ECUS. 2011. Kilton Lane, Brotton, Redcar Cleveland – Archaeological Evaluation Summary ( Unpublished interim report).
   Google Scholar
• Esmonde Cleary S. 1989. The Ending of Roman Britain. London: Batsford.
   Google Scholar
• Faulkner N. 2003. The Debate About the End of Britain: A Review of Evidence and Methods. Archaeological Journal, 159:59–77.
   Google Scholar
• Faulkner N. 2004. The Decline and Fall of Roman Britain. Stroud: Tempus.
   Google Scholar
• Ferris I. 2010. The Beautiful Rooms are Empty: Excavations at Binchester Roman Fort, County Durham 1976–1981 and 1986–1991. Durham: Durham County Council.
   Google Scholar
• Fox A. 1940. The Legionary Fortress at Caerleon, Monmouthshire: Excavations in Myrtle Cottage Orchard 1939. Archaeologia Cambrensis, 95:101–52.
   Google Scholar
• Fox C. 1959. The Personality of Britain: Its Influence on Inhabitant and Invader in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times, fourth edition. Cardiff: National Museum of Wales.
   Google Scholar
• Fulford M. 2011. The Impact of Commercial Archaeology on the UK Heritage. In: , Curtis J., Fulford M., Harding A., Reynolds F., eds. History for the Taking? Perspectives on Material Heritage. London: British Academy, pp. 33–53.
   Google Scholar
• Fulford M., Holbrook N. 2011. Assessing the Contribution of Commercial Archaeology to the Study of the Roman Period in England, 1990–2004. Antiquaries Journal, 91:323–45.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner A. 2007. An Archaeology of Identity: Soldiers and Society in Late Roman Britain. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner A. 2011. Soldiers and Spaces: Daily Life in Late Roman Forts. In: , Lavan L., Swift E., Putzeys T., eds. Objects in Context, Objects in Use: Material Spatiality in Late Antiquity. Leiden: Brill, pp. 657–85.
   Google Scholar
• Harding D.W. 2008. The Holme House Villa. In: , Cool H., Mason D., eds. Roman Piercebridge: Excavations by D.W. Harding and Peter Scott (1969–1981). Durham: Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland. Research Report 7, pp. 127–58.
   Google Scholar
• Härke H. 2011. Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethno-Genesis. Medieval Archaeology, 55:1–28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haselgrove C. 2002. The Later Bronze Age and the Iron Age in the Lowlands. In: , Brooks C., Daniels R., Harding A., eds. Past, Present and Future: The Archaeology of Northern England. Durham: Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland Research Report 5, pp. 49–69.
   Google Scholar
• Haselgrove C., Fitts R., Turnbull P. 1991a. Stanwick, North Yorkshire, Part 1: Recent Research and Previous Archaeological Investigations. Archaeological Journal, 147:1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Haselgrove C., Turnbull P., Lowther P. 1991b. Stanwick, North Yorkshire, Part 3: Excavations on Earthworks Sites 1981–86. Archaeological Journal, 147:37–90.
   Google Scholar
• Heslop D. ed. 1987. The Excavation of an Iron Age Settlement at Thorpe Thewles, Cleveland 1980–2. London: Council for British Archaeology Research Report 65.
   Google Scholar
• Higham N.J. 1992. Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons. London: Seaby.
   Google Scholar
• Hind J. 2005. The Watchtowers and Fortlets on the North Yorkshire Coast (Turres et Castra). Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 77:17–24.
   Google Scholar
• Hingley R. 1989. Rural Settlement in Roman Britain. London: Seaby.
   Google Scholar
• Hingley R. 2000. Roman Officers and English Gentlemen. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hodgson N. 1994. Courtyard House. In: , Bidwell P., Speak S., eds. Excavations at South Shields Roman Fort. Newcastle: Tyne and Wear Museums/Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle, pp. 35–44.
   Google Scholar
• Hodgson N., Bidwell P.T. 2005. Auxiliary Barracks in a New Light: Recent Discoveries on Hadrian's Wall. Britannia, 35:121–57.
   Google Scholar
• Hooppell R.E. 1891. Vinovia: A Buried Roman City. London: Whiting and Co.
   Google Scholar
• Hopkins K. 1980. Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 B.C.–A.D. 400). Journal of Roman Studies, 70:101–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard-Davis C. 2009. The Carlisle Millennium Project: Excavations in Carlisle 1998–2001, Volume 2: Finds. Lancaster: Lancaster Imprints.
   Google Scholar
• James S. 2001a. ‘Romanisation’ and the peoples of Britain. In: , Keay S., Terrenato N., eds. Italy and the West: Comparative Issues in Romanization. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 187–209.
   Google Scholar
• James S. 2001b. Soldiers and Civilians: Identity and Interaction in Roman Britain. In: , James S., Millett M., eds. Romans and Britons: Advancing an Archaeological Agenda. York: Council for British Archaeology. CBA Research Report 125, pp. 77–89.
   Google Scholar
• James S. 2002. Writing the legions; the past, present and future of Roman military studies in Britain. Archaeological Journal, 159:1–58.
   Google Scholar
• Loveluck C. 2002. The Romano-British to Anglo-Saxon Transition—Social Transformations from the Late Roman to Early Medieval Period in Northern England AD 400–700. In: , Brooks C., Daniels R., Harding A., eds. Past, Present and Future: The Archaeology of Northern England. Durham: Architectural and Archaeological Society of Durham and Northumberland, Research Report 5, pp. 127–48.
   Google Scholar
• Mattingly D.J. 2004. Being Roman: Expressing Identity in a Provincial Setting. Journal of Roman Archaeology, 17:5–26.
   Google Scholar
• Mattingly D. 2007. An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire 54 BC-AD 409. London: Allen Lane.
   Google Scholar
• Mattingly D. 2011. Imperialism, Power and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miket R., Pocock M. 1976. An Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Greenbank, Darlington. Medieval Archaeology, 20:62–74.
   Google Scholar
• Millett M. 1990. The Romanization of Britain: An Essay in Archaeological Interpretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nolan J. 2010. The Early Medieval Cemetery at the Castle, Newcastle upon Tyne. Archaeologia Aeliana, 39(5):147–287.
   Google Scholar
• O'Brien C. 2010. The Emergence of Northumbria: Artefacts, Archaeology and Models. In: , Collins R., Allason-Jones L., eds. Finds from the Frontier: Material Culture in the Fourth-Fifth Centuries AD. York: Council for British Archaeology. CBA Research Report 162. pp. 110–19.
   Google Scholar
• Ottaway P. 2001. Excavations on the Site of the Roman Signal Station at Carr Naze, Filey. Archaeological Journal, 157:79–199.
   Google Scholar
• Ottaway P. 2003. Roman Yorkshire: A Rapid Resource Assessment. In: , Manby T.G., Moorhouse S., Ottaway P., eds. The Archaeology of Yorkshire: An Assessment at the Beginning of the 21st Century. York: Yorkshire Archaeological Society, Occasional Paper 3, pp. 125–51.
   Google Scholar
• Petts D. 1998. Landscape and cultural identity in Roman Britain. In: , Berry J., Laurence R., eds. Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire. London: Routledge, pp. 79–94.
   Google Scholar
• Petts D., Gerrard C. 2006. Shared Visions: The North-East Regional Research Framework for the Historic Environment. Durham: Durham County Council.
   Google Scholar
• Pitts M. 2007. The emperor's new clothes: utility of identity in Roman archaeology. American Journal of Archaeology, 111:693–713.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts M. 2008. Globalizing the local in Roman Britain: an anthropological approach to social change. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 27:493–506.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips D., Heywood B. 1995. Excavations at York Minster Volume I: From Roman Fortress to Norman Cathedral. London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office.
   Google Scholar
• Proctor J. 2012. Faverdale, Darlington. Excavations at a Major Settlement in the Northern Frontier Zone of Roman Britain. London: Pre-Construct Archaeology Monograph 15.
   Google Scholar
• Ramm H. 1978. The Parisi. London: Duckworth.
   Google Scholar
• Richards J.D., Naylor J. 2011. Settlement Landscape and Economy in Early Medieval Nothumbria: The Contribution of Portable Antiquities. In: , Petts D., Turner S., eds. Early Medieval Northumbria: Kingdoms and Communities AD 450–1100. Turnhout: Brepols, pp. 129–50.
   Google Scholar
• Richmond I.A., Romans T., Wright R.P. 1944. A Civilian Bath-House of the Roman Period at Old Durham. Archaeologia Aeliana, 22(4):1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts B.K. 2008. Landscapes, Documents and Maps: Villages in Northern England and Beyond AD 900–1250. Oxford: Oxbow.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts B.K. 2010. Northumbrian Origins and Post-Roman Continuity. In: , Collins R., Allason-Jones L., eds. Finds from the Frontier: Material Culture in the Fourth-Fifth Centuries AD. York: Council for British Archaeology. CBA Research Report 162, pp. 120–32.
   Google Scholar
• Roth R.E. 2007. Styling Romanisation: Pottery and Society in Central Italy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rowe P. n.d. Roman Trumpet and Crossbow Brooches from Hartlepool ( unpublished MS Tees Valley Historic Environment Record).
   Google Scholar
• Sargent A. 2002. The North-South Divide Revisited: Thoughts on the Character of Roman Britain. Britannia, 33:219–26.
   Google Scholar
• Sherlock S.J., Welch M.G. 1992. An Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Norton in Cleveland. CBA Research Report 82. York: Council for British Archaeology.
   Google Scholar
• Speed G. forthcoming. Excavations at Hollow Banks Quarry, North Yorkshire. Northern Archaeological Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Symonds M., Mason D. 2009. Frontiers of Knowledge: A Research Framework for Hadrian's Wall. Durham: Durham County Council.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor J. 2007. An Atlas of Roman Rural Settlement in England. York: Council for British Archaeology.
   Google Scholar
• Terrenato N. 1998. The Romanization of Italy: global acculturation or cultural bricolage? In: , Forcey C., Hawthorne J., Witcher R., eds. Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference. Oxford: Oxbow, pp. 20–7.
   Google Scholar
• Vyner B.E., Daniels R. 1989. Further Investigations of the Iron Age and Romano-British Settlement Site at Catcote, Hartlepool, Cleveland, 1987. Durham Archaeological Journal, 5:11–34.
   Google Scholar
• Webster J. 2001. Creolizing the Roman Provinces. American Journal of Archaeology, 105(2):209–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White R. 2007. Britannia Prima. Stroud: Tempus.
   Google Scholar
• Wickham C. 2009. The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000. London: Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Wilmott T. 1997. Birdoswald, Excavations of a Roman Fort on Hadrian's Wall and Its Successor Settlements: 1987–92. London: English Heritage.
   Google Scholar
• Wilmott T. 2000. The Late Roman Transition at Birdoswald and on Hadrian's Wall. In: , Wilmott T., Wilson P., eds. The Late Roman Transition in the North. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. BAR British Series 299, pp. 13–23.
   Google Scholar
• Wilmott T. 2010. The Late Roman Frontier: A Structural Background. In: , Collins R., Allason-Jones L., eds. Finds from the Frontier: Material Culture in the Fourth-Fifth Centuries AD. York: Council for British Archaeology. CBA Research Report 162, pp. 10–16.
   Google Scholar
• Wood I. 2008. Monasteries and the Geography of Power in the Age of Bede. Northern History, 45(1):11–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zant J. 2009. The Carlisle Millennium Project: Excavations in Carlisle 1998–2001. Volume 1: Stratigraphy. Lancaster: Lancaster Imprints.
   Google Scholar