Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology of Biotherapeutic Agents: Saccharomyces boulardii

References

• Brook I. Bacterial interference. Crit Rev Microbiol 1999; 25 (3): 155–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bengmark S. Colonic food: pre- and probiotics. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 25 (Suppl 1): S5–S7.
   Google Scholar
• Periti P, Mazzei T. Antibiosi, probiosi, prebiosi ed omeostasi microbica intestinale: breve rassegna della letteratu-ra. Farm Ter 1998; 3/4: 149–155.
   Google Scholar
• Periti P, Capurso L. Componenti dietetiche non-nutrizionali ed omeostasi del microbiota intestinale. Farm Ter 1999; XVI (1/2): 9-19.
   Google Scholar
• Elmer GW, Surawicz CM, McFarland LV. Biotherapeutic agents. A neglected modality for the treatment and prevention of selected intestinal and vaginal infections. JAMA 1996; 275 (11): 870–876.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis SJ, Freedman AR. Review article: the use of bio-therapeutic agents in the prevention and treatment of gas-trointestinal disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1998; 12: 807–822.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messing B, Crenn P, Beau P, Boutron-Ruault MC, Rambaud J-C, Matuchansky C. Long-term survival and par-enteral nutrition dependence in adult patients with the short bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 1999; 117: 1043–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Periti P, Tonelli F. Attualita bioterapeutiche degli agenti probiotici. Ruolo del Saccharomyces boulardii. Farm Ter 2000; XVII (1-2): 24-45.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller R, Gibson GR. Modification of the intestinal microflora using probiotics and prebiotics. Gastroenterology 1997; 32 (Suppl 222): 28–31.
   Google Scholar
• Goldin BR. Health benefits of probiotics. Br J Nutr 1998; 80 (Suppl 2): S203–S207.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roberfroid MB. Prebiotics and synbiotics: concepts and nutritional properties. Br J Nutr 1998; 80 (Suppl 2): S197–S202.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hamilton-Miller JMT. Living in the ‘post-antibiotic era’: could the use of probiotics be an effective strategy? Clin Microbiol Infect 1997; 3 (1): 2–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Sullivan GC. Probiotics. Br J Surg 2001; 88: 161–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmering R, Blaut M. Pro- and prebiotics — the tasty guardian angels? Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2001; 55: 19–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota; introducing the concept of prebi-otics. J Nutr, 1995; 125: 1401–1412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson GR. Probiotics and prebiotics — Notes from a session held at the 21st International Congress of Chemotherapy, Birmingham, UK, July 1999. Antibiotics Chemotherapy (Newsletter of the International Society of Chemotherapy) 2000; 4 (1): 4–5.
   Google Scholar
• Walker WA. Role of nutrients and bacterial colonization in the development of intestinal host defense. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutrit 2000; 30: S2–S7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Waaij DJM, Berghuis JM, Lekkerkerk-van der Wees JEC. Colonization resistance of the digestive tract in conventional and antibiotic-treated mice. J Hyg 1971: 72: 605–610.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Waaij D. Colonization pattern of the digestive tract by potentially pathogenic micro-organisms: colonization-controlling mechanisms and consequences for antibiotic treat-ment. Infection 1983; 11 (Suppl 2): 90–92.
   Google Scholar
• Vollaard EJ, Clasener HAL. Colonization resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38 (3): 409–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker WA, Duffy LC. Diet and bacterial colonization: role of probiotics and prebiotics. J Nutr Biochem 1998; 9: 668–675.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Periti P, Mazzei T, De Gaudio AR, Tonelli F. Attuali orientamenti nella scelta e modalita di somministrazione degli agenti antimicrobici per una razionale chemioterapia della sepsi grave. Farm Ter 1998; XV (1/2): 3-23.
   Google Scholar
• Periti P. Current treatment of sepsis and endotoxaemia. Exp Opin Pharmacother 2000; 1 (6): 1203–1217.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oberholzer C, Oberholzer A, Clare-Salzler M, Moldawer LL. Apoptosis in sepsis: a new target for therapeutic explo-ration. FASEB J 2001; 15: 879–892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bengmark S, Gianotti L. Nutritional support to prevent and treat multiple organ failure. World J Surg 1996; 20: 474–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowlands BJ, Gardiner KR. Nutritional modulation of gut inflammation. Proc Nutr Society 1998; 57: 395–401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowlands BJ, Vonn Soong C, Gardiner KR. The gas-trointestinal tract as a barrier in sepsis. Br Med Bull 1999; 55 (1): 196–211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blum S, Alvarez S, Haller D, Perez P, Schiffrin EJ. Intestinal microflora and the interaction with immunocompe-tent cells. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1999; 76: 199–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanderhoof JA. Probiotics and intestinal inflammatory disorders in infants and children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000; 30 (Suppl 2): S34–S38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacFie J, O'Boyle C, Mitchell CJ, Buckley PM, Johnstone D, Sudworth P. Gut origin of sepsis: a prospective study investigating associations between bacterial translocation, gastric microflora, and septic morbidity. Gut 1999; 45 (2): 223–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• L'Informatore Farmaceutico 2001. 61 Edizione. Organizzazione Editoriale Medico Farmaceutica S. p. A., Milano 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Elmer GW. Probiotics: “Living drugs”. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2001; 58: 1101–1109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunne C, Murphy L, Flynn S, et al. Probiotics: from myth to reality. Demonstration of functionality in animal mod-els of disease and in human clinical trials. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1999: 76: 279–292.
   Google Scholar
• Holzapfel WH, Haberer P, Snel J, Schillinger U, Huis in't Veld JHJ. Overview of gut flora and probiotics. Int J Food Microbiol 1998; 41: 85–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV. Biotherapeutic agents for Clostridium difficile-associated disease. In: “Biotherapeutic Agents and Infectious Diseases” (Elmer GW, McFarland L, Surawicz C, Eds), Chapter 7. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ 1999: 159-193.
   Google Scholar
• Milner JA. Functional Foods and health promotion. J Nutr 1999; 129: 1395S-1397S.
   Google Scholar
• Hasler CM. The changing face of functional foods. J Am Cell Nutr 2000; 19 (5): 499S-506S.
   Google Scholar
• Hudault S, Lievin V, Bernet-Camard MF, Servin AL. Antagonistic activity exerted in vitro and in vivo by Lactobacillus casei (strain GG) against Salmonella typhimuri-urn C5 infection. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997; 63: 513–518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughan EE, Mollet B, Vos VM de. Functionality of probiotics and intestinal lactobacilli: light inthe intestinal tract tunnel. Curr Opin Biotechnol 1999; 10: 505–510.
   Google Scholar
• Biller JA, Katz AJ, Flores AF, Buie TM, Gorbach SL. Treatment recurrent Clostridium difficile colitis with Lactobacillus GG. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1995; 21 (2): 224–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorbach SL, Chang TW, Goldin B. Successful treat-ment of relapsing Clostridium difficile colitis with Lactobacillus GG. Lancet 1987; ii: 1519.
   Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Greenberg RN, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of Saccharomyces boulardii in combination with standard antibiotics for Clostridium difficile disease. JAMA 1994; 271: 1913–1918.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpignato C, Rampal P. Prevention and treatment of traveler's diarrhea: a clinic pharmacological approach. Chemotherapy 1995; 41 (Suppl 1): 48–81.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elmer GW, McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Danko L, Greenberg RN. Behaviour of Saccharomyces boulardii in recurrent Clostridium difficile disease patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1999; 13: 1663–1668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee Y-K, Nomoto K, Salminen S, Gorbach SL (Eds). “Handbook of Probiotics”. John Wiley & Sons, inc., New York 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller R. Probiotics in man and animals. J Appl Bacteriol 1989; 66: 365–378.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Siitonen S, Vapaatalo H, Salminen S, et al. Effect of Lactobacillus GG yoghurt in prevention of antibiotic associat-ed diarrhea. Ann Med 1990; 22: 57–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alander M, Satokari R, Korpela R, et al. Persistence of colonization of human colonic mucosa by probiotic strain, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, after oral consumption. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999; 65 (1): 351–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandenplas Y. Bacteria and yeasts in the treatment of acute and chronic infectious diarrhea. Part I: bacteria. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999; 5: 299–307.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Armuzzi A, Cremonini F, Ojetti V, et al. Effect of Lactobacillus GG supplementation on antibiotic-associated gastrointestinal side effects during Helicobacter pylori eradica-tion therapy: a pilot study. Digestion 2001; 63: 1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armuzzi A, Cremonini F, Bartolozzi F, et al. The effect of oral administration of Lactobacillus GG on antibiotic-asso-ciated gastrointestinal side-effects during Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001; 15: 163–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin SW, Heatherington AC, Elmer GW. Pharmacokinetics of biotherapeutic agents. In: “Biotherapeutic Agents and Infectious Diseases” (Elmer GW, McFarland L, Surawicz C, Eds), Chapter 3. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ 1999: 47-84.
   Google Scholar
• Vandenplas Y. Bacteria and yeasts in the treatment of acute and chronic infectious diarrhea. Part II: yeasts. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999; 5: 389–395.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McFarland LV, Bernasconi P. Saccharomyces boulardii: a review of an innovative biotherapeutic agent. Microbial Ecology Health Dis 1993; 6: 157–171.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein SM, Elmer GW, McFarland LV, Surawicx CM, Levy RH. Recovery and elimination of the biotherapeutic agent, Saccharomyces boulardii, in healthy human volun-teers. Pharm Res 1993; 10 (11): 1615–1619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elmer GW, Moyer KA, Vega R, et al. Evaluation of Saccharomyces boulardii for patients with HIV-related chron-ic diarrhoea and in healthy volunteers receiving antifungals. Microecology Ther 1995; 25: 23–31.
   Google Scholar
• Blehaut H, Massot J, Elmer GW, Levy RH. Disposition kinetics of Saccharomyces boulardii in man and rat. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1989; 10: 353–364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elmer GW, Martin SW, Homer KL, McFarland LV, Levy RH. Survival of Saccharomyces boulardii in the gas-trointestinal tract and interactions with dietary fiber. Personal Communication, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Machado Caetano JA, Parames MT, Babo MJ, et al. Immunopharmacological effects of Saccharomyces boulardii in healthy human volunteers. Int J Immunopharmacol 1986; 8: 245–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugas B, Mercenier A, Lenoir-Wijnkoop I, Arnaud C, Dugas N, Postaire E. Immunity and Probiotics. Immunol Today 1999; 30 (9): 387–390.
   Google Scholar
• Marteau P, Cellier C. Immunological effects of biothera-peutic agents. In: “Biotherapeutic Agents and Infectious Diseases” (Elmer GW, McFarland L, Surawicz C, Eds), Chapter 5. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ 1999: 121-144.
   Google Scholar
• Blum S, Delneste Y, Donnet A, Schiffrin EJ. The influ-ence of probiotic organisms on the immune response. In: “Nutrition and Immunology — Principles and Practice” (Gershwin ME, German JB, Keen CL, Eds). Humana Press, Inc., Totowa, NJ 2000: 451-455.
   Google Scholar
• Nicod-Bertin L, Panouse-Perrin J. Proprietes activatri-ces de deux preparations de levures vis-a-vis du systeme com-plement humain. Rev Inst Pasteur Lyon 1985; 18: 345–365.
   Google Scholar
• Ducluzeau R, Bensaada M. Effect compare de l'adminis-tration unique ou en continu de Saccharomyces boulardii sur l'etablissement de diverses souches de Can dida dans le tractus digestif de souris gnotoxeniques. Ann Microbiol 1982; 133: 491–501.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bergogne-Berezin E, Bornet M. In vitro antagonistic effect of Saccharomyces boulardii against bacteria involved in diarrhea in intensive-care-unit patient. Sci Alim 1986; 6: 63–73.
   Google Scholar
• Berg R, Bernasconi P, Fowler D, Gautreux M. Inhibition of Can dida albicans translocation from the gas-trointestinal tract of mice by oral administration of Saccharomyces boulardii. J Infect Dis 1993; 168: 1314–1318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czerucka D, Roux I, Rampal P. Saccharomyces boulardii inhibits secretagogou-mediated adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate induction in intestinal cells. Gastroenterology 1994; 106: 65–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dias RS, Bambirra EA, Silva ME, Nicoli JR. Protective effect of Saccharomyces boulardii against the cholera toxin in rats. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995; 28: 323–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vidon N, Huchet B, Rambaud JC. Influence de Saccharomyces boulardii sur la secretion jejunale induite chez le rat par la toxine cholerique. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1986; 10: 13–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Castagliuolo I, Lamont JT, Nikulasson ST, Pothoulakis C. Saccharomyces boulardii protease inhibits Clostridium difficile toxin A effects in the rat ileum. Infect Immun 1996; 64: 5225–5232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pothoulakis C, Kelly CP, Joshi MA, et al. Saccharomyces boulardii inhibits Clostridium difficile toxin A binding and enterotoxicity in rat ileum. Gastroenterology 1993; 104: 1108–1115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buts JP, De Keyser N, De Raedemaeker L. Saccharomyces boulardii enhances rat intestinal enzyme expression by endolulminal release of polyamines. Pediatr Res 1994; 36: 552–557.
   Google Scholar
• Tutton PJ, Barkla DH. Biogenic amines as regulators of the proliferative activity of normal and neoplastic intestinal epithelial cells. Anticancer Res 1987; 7: 1–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capano G, Bloch KJ, Carter EA, Dascoli JA, Schoenfeld D, Harmatz PR. Polyamines in human and rat milk influence intestinal cell growth in vitro. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1998; 27: 281–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanderhoof JA, Kollman K, Goulet O. Saccharomyces boulardii does not stimulate mucosal hyperplasia following intestinal resection in the rat. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1998; 26: 567.
   Google Scholar
• Zaouche A, Loukil C, Peuchmaur M, et al. Effects of oral Saccharomyces boulardii on bacterial overgrowth, translocation and intestinal adaptation after small bowel resec-tion in growing rats. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1998; 26: 570.
   Google Scholar
• Buts J-P, De Keyser N, Marandi S, et al. Saccharomyces boulardii upgrades cellular adaptation after proximal enterectomy in rats. GUT 1999; 45 (1): 89–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahn H-U, Ulrich R, Schneider T, et al. Immunological and trophical effects of Saccharomyces boulardii on the small intestine in healthy human volunteers. Digestion 1996; 57: 95–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergogne-Berezin E. Treatment and prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000; 16: 521–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adam P. Essais cliniques controles en double insu de l'ultra-levure lyophilisee (etude multicentrique par 25 medecins de 388 cas). Medecine et Chirurgie Digestive 1976; 5: 401–406.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Surawicz CM, Elmer GW, Speelman P, McFarland LV, Chinn J, Van Belle G. Prevention of antibiotic-associated diar-rhea by Saccharomyces boulardii: a prospective study. Gastroenterology 1989; 96: 981–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tempe JD, Steidel AL, Blehaut H, Hasselman M, Lutun Ph, Maurier F. Prevention par Saccharomyces boulardii des diarrhees de l'alimentation enterale a debit con-tinu. Semine Hopit Paris 1983; 59: 1409–1412.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bleichner G, Blehaut H, Mentec H, Moyse D. Saccharomyces boulardii prevents diarrhea in critically ill tube-fed patients. Intensive Care Med 1997; 23: 517–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlotterer M, Bernasconi P, Lebreton F, Wasserman D. Interet de Saccharomyces boulardii dans la tolerance digestive de la nutrition enterale a debit continu chez le brale. Nutr Clin Metab 1987; 1: 31–34.
   Google Scholar
• Kollaritsch HH, Kemsner P, Wiedermann G, Schemer O. Prevention of traveller's diarrhoea. Comparison of different non-antibiotic preparations. Travel Med Int 1989: 9–17.
   Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Greenberg RN, et al. Prevention of I3-lactam-associated diarrhea by Saccharomycis boulardii compared with placebo. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 439–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höchter W, Chase D, Hagenhoff G. Saccharomyces boulardii in acute adult diarrhoea. Munch Med Wochenschr 1990; 132: 188–192.
   Google Scholar
• Cetina-Sauri G, Sierra Basto G. Evaluation therapeu-tique de Saccharomyces boulardii chez des enfants souffrant de diarrhee aiguë. Ann Pediatr 1994; 41: 397–400.
   Google Scholar
• Castaneda C. Effects of Saccharomyces boulardii in children with chronic diarrhea, especially due to giardiasis. Rev Mexicana Puericultura Pediatr 1995: 2.
   Google Scholar
• Saint-Marc T, Blehaut H, Musial Ch, Touraine JL. Diarrhoen im Zusammenhang mit AIDS (Doppelblindstudie mit Saccharomyces boulardii). Sem Hosp Paris 1995; 71: 735–741.
   Google Scholar
• Kollaritsch H, Hoist H, Grobara P, Wiedermann G. Prophylaxe der reisediarrhoe mit Saccharomyces boulardii: ergebnisse einer plazebo-kontrollierten doppelblindstudie. Fortsch Med 1993; 111: 3–8.
   Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG, Chang TW, Gurwith M, et al. Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis due to toxin producing Clostridia. N Eng J Med 1978; 298: 531–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 15: 573–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel LC. Antibiotic-induced diarrhea. Orthop Nurs 1995; 14 (2): 38–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clausen MR, Bonnen H, Tvede M, Mortensen PB. Colonic fermentation to short-chain fatty acids is decreased in antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Gastroenterology 1991; 101: 1497–1504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogenauer C, Hammer HF, Krejs GJ, Reisinger EC. Mechanisms and management of antibiotic-associated diar-rhea. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 702–710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McJunkin B, Fromm H, Sarva RP, Amin P. Factors in the mechanism of diarrhea in bile acid malabsorption: fecal pH — a key determinant. Gastroenterology 1981; 80: 1454–1464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hove H, Tvede M, Brobech-Mortensen P. Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, Clostridium difficile, and short-chain fatty acids. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996; 31: 688–693.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peeters TL, Matthijs G, Depoortere I, Cachet T, Hoogmartens J, Vantrappen G. Erythromycin is a motilin receptor agonist. Am J Physiol 1989; 257: G470–G474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobbins WO, Herrero BA, Mansbach CM. Morphologic alterations associated with neomycin induced malabsorption. Am J Med Sci 1968; 225: 63–77.
   Google Scholar
• Beier-Holgersen R, Boesby S. Influence of postopera-tive enteral nutrition on postsurgical infections. GUT 1996; 39 (6): 833–835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton RN. Neuroendocrine mobilization of body fuels after injury. Br Med Bull 1985; 41: 218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumayer LA, Smout RJ, Horn HGS, Horn SD. Early and sufficient feeding reduces length of stay and charges in surgical patients. J Surg Res 2001; 95: 73–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heyland DK, MacDonald S, Keefe L, Drover JW. Total parenteral nutrition in the critically ill patient. JAMA 1998; 280 (23): 2013–2019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bozzetti F, Gavazzi C, Cozzaglio L, et al. Perioperative TPN in malnourished patients with gastrointestinal cancer: a randomized clinical trial. Clin Nutr 1997; 16 (2): 10.
   Google Scholar
• Bozzetti F. Lessons learned from studies on immune-nutrition in postoperative patients. Clin Nutr 1999; 18 (4): 193–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fekety R, McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Greenberg RN, Elmer GW, Mulligan E. Recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhea: characteristics of and risk factors for patients enrolled in a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 324–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Rubin M, Fekety R, Elmer GW, Greenberg RN. Recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: epidemiology and clinical characteristics. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999; 20 (1): 43–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mylonakis E, Ryan ET, Calderwood SB. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 525–533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG. Clostridium difficile: clinical considera-tions. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12: S243–S251.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bartlett JG. Management of Clostridium difficile infection and other antibiotic-associated diarrhoeas. Eur K Gastroenterol Hepatol 1996; 8 (11): 1054–1061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fekety R, Shah AB. Diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis 1993; 269: 71–75.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts MC, McFarland LV, Mullany P, Mullingan ME. Characterization of the genetic basis of antibiotic resistance in Clostridium difficile. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994; 33: 419–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toothaker RD, Elmer GW. Prevention of clindamycin-induced mortality in hamsters by Sacharomyces boulardii. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1984; 26: 552–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surawicz CM, McFarland LV, Greenberg RN, et al. The search for a better treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: use of high-dose vancomycin combined with Saccharomyces boulardii. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 1012–1017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gionchetti P, Rizzello F, Venturi A, et al. Oral bacte-riotherapy as maintenance treatment in patients with chronic pouchitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2000; 119: 305–309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouellette AJ, Selsted ME. Paneth cell defensins: endogenous peptide components of intestinal host defense. Faseb J 1996; 10: 1280–1289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham-Rundles S, Lin DH. Nutrition and the immune system of the gut. Nutrition 1998; 14 (7/8): 573-579.
   Google Scholar
• Kirchelle A, Frtihwein N, Toburen D. Behandlung der persistierenden diarhoe mit S. boulardii bei reisertickkehren. Fortschr Med 1996; 144: 136–140.
   Google Scholar
• Sadoun-Journo E, Gaillard JL, Belhaut G, Goulet O, Bernasconi P, Ricour C. Grele court dysfonctionnel (GCD) complique de pullalation bacterienne chez l'enfant: effet de Saccharomyces boulardii (SB). Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1994; 18: 101.
   Google Scholar
• mein J, Hotz J. Therapeutic effect of Saccharomyces boulardii on mild residual symptoms in astable phase of Crohn's disease with special respect to chronic diarrhea, a pilot study. Z Gastroenterol 1993; 31: 129–134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darfeuille-Michaud A, Neut C, Barnich N, et al. Presence of adherent Escherichia coli strains in ileal mucosa of patients with Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 1998; 115: 1405–1413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sartor RB. Enteric microflora in IBD: pathogens or commensals? Inflam Bowel Dis 1997; 3: 230–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bulois P, Desreumaux P, Neut C, Darfeuille-Michaud A, Cortot A, Colombel J-F. Infectious agents and Crohn's dis-ease. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999; 5: 601–604.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rutgeerts P, Goboes K, Peeters M, et al. Effect of fae-cal stream diversion on recurrence of Crohn's disease in the neoterminal ileum. Lancet 1991; 338: 771–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Favier C, Neut C, Mizon C, Cortot A, Colombel JF, Mizon J. Fecal P-D-galactosidase production and Bifidobacteria are decreased in Crohn's disease. Dig Dis Sci 1997; 42 (4): 817–822.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta P, Andrew H, Kirschner BS, Guandalini S. Is Lactobacillus GG helpful in children with Crohn's disease? Results of a preliminary, open-label study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000; 31: 453–457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tetteroo GWM, Wagenzoort JHT, Bruining HA. Role of selective decontamination in surgery. Br J Surg 1992; 79: 300–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donnel SC, Taylor N, van Saene HKF, Pierro A, Lloyd DA. Nutritional Implications of gut overgrowth and selective decontamination of the digestive tract. Proc Nutr Society 1998; 57: 381–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Elmer GW. Pharmaceutical probiotics for the treatment of anaerobic and other infections. Anaerobe 1997; 3: 73–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan MS, Jilling T. Neonatal necrotizin enterocolitis: possible role of probiotic supplementation. J Ped Gastroenterol Nutr 2000; 30: S18–S22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirjavainene PV, Apostolou E, Salminen SJ, Isolauri E. New aspects of probiotics — a novel approach in the manage-ment of food allergy. Allergy 1999; 54: 909–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanbom WJ. Pouochitis following ileal pouch-anal anstomosis: definition, pathogenesis, and treatment. Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 1856–1860.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ruseler-van-Embden JGH, Schouten WR, van Lieshout LMC. Pouchitis: result of microbial imbalance? Gut 1994; 35: 658–664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sartor RB. Probiotics in chronic pouchitis: restoring luminal microbial balance. Gastroenterology 2000; 119 (2): 584–586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mowschenson PM, Critchlow JF, Peppercom MA. Ileoanal pouch operation: long-term outcome with or without diverting ileostomy. Arch Surg 2000; 135: 463–465.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Periti P, ToneIli F, Capurso L, Nicoletti P. Managing Helicobacter pylori infection in the New Millennium: a review. J Chemother 1999; 11 (Suppl 4): 3–55.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adams MR, Marteau P. On the safety of lactic acid bacteria from food. Int J Food Microbiol 1995; 27: 263–264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donohe DC, Salminen S. Safety of probiotic bacteria Asia Pac J Clin 1996; 5: 25–28.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aguirre M, Collins K. Lactic acid bacteria and human clinical infections. J Appl Bacteriol 1993; 75: 95–107.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gasser F. Safety of lactic acid bacteria and their occurence in human clinical infections. Bull Inst Pasteur 1994; 92: 45–67.
   Google Scholar
• Saxelin M, Rautelin H, Salminen S, Makela P. The safety of commercial products with viable Lactobacillus strains. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1996; 5: 331–335.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surawicz CM, McFarland LV. Risks of biotherapeutics agents. In: “Biotherapeutic Agents and Infectious Diseases” (Elmer GW, McFarland L, Surawicz C, Eds), Chapter 12. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ 1999b: 263-268.
   Google Scholar
• Hennequin C, Kauffmann-Lacroix C, Jobert A, et al. Possible role of catheters in Saccharomyces boulardii fungemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 19: 16–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridkin SK, Jarvis WR. Epidemiology of nosocomial fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 1996; 9: 499–511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kralovicova K, Spanik S, Oravcova E, et al. Fungemia in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy versus surgery: risk factors, etiology and outcome. Scand J Infect Dis 1997; 29: 301–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar