References
- Properly speaking the term 'replica' should be reserved for objects or processes achieving the highest levels of accuracy and authenticity in all respects. Lesser standards are realised in 'repro-ductions', 'reconstructions', and 'representations', in that descending order. Really first class replication is probably extremely difficult to achieve, and it is, therefore, unfortunate that the term 'replica' is used generically. To avoid this confusion I prefer, and will try to use, either copy or re-creation as the general term.
- V. Foley, W. Soedel, J. Turner, and B. Wilhoite, 'The Origin of Gearing', History of Technology, vol. 7 (1982), pp. 101–29.
- J.S. Morrison, J.E. Coates, and N.B. Rankov, The Athenian Trireme, 2nd edn (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
- A recent study with up-to-date bibliography is P. Leveau, 'The Barbegal water mill and its environment', Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 9 (1996), pp. 137–53.
- An example from ancient water-supply is instructive. With rare exceptions, Roman aqueducts contain so many changes of slope, direction, and cross-section at very short intervals that mod-ern open-channel flow analysis is very difficult indeed to apply. But for the Romans such varia-tions did not matter; if an aqueduct had a downward slope it would flow. If it did not flow satisfactorily then there was always the option of putting right everything that had gone wrong. What we might call 'design by successive modification' is by no means unknown even today. The Nimes aqueduct is one that performed badly — significant overflow was experienced — and so the aqueduct's sides were raised at strategic points along the route.
- However, it is disconcerting to find that the boat's hypozomata, i.e. post-tensioned ropes to strengthen the hull, are steel cables.
- The Engineering of Medieval Cathedrals, ed. L.T. Courtenay (AshgateNariorum, Aldershot,1997).
- D.J. Dowrick and P. Beckmann, 'York Minster structural restoration', Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, supplement vi (1971), pp. 93–156.
- J. Heyman, The Stone Skeleton: Structural Engineering of Masonry Architecture (CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, 1995).
- R. Mark, Experiments in Gothic Structure (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1982).
- J. Fitchen, 'A comment on the function of the upper flying buttresses in French Gothic architecture', Gazette des Beaux-Arts, vol. xlv (Feb., 1955), pp. 69–90.
- R.J. Mainstone, 'Structural Analysis, Structural Insights, and Historical Interpretation', Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 56, no. 3, (1997), p. 322.
- R. Mark, op. cit. (10), pp. 52–55.
- R. Mark and W.W. Clark, 'Gothic Structural Experimentation', Scientific American, vol. 251, no. 5 (Nov., 1984), p. 149.
- R. Mark, Light, Wind and Structure (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1990), p. 108.
- Viollet-le-Duc's explanation is given in J. Heyman, 'Beauvais Cathedral', Transactions, Newcomen Society, vol. 40 (1967–68), p. 30.
- R. Mark, op. cit. (15), pp. 132–33.
- S. Murray, 'The Collapse of 1284 at Beauvais Cathedral', The Thirteenth Century, Acta, vol. III(1976), pp. 17–44.
- See, for example, M. Salvadori, Why Buildings Stand Up: The Strength of Architecture (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982), p. 219.
- L. Courtenay, op. cit. (7).
- R.J. Mainstone, op. cit. (12), p. 336.
- H. Cross, Engineers and Ivory Towers (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952), p. 12.
- L. White Jnr., Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1962), p. 127.
- J. Fitchen, Building Construction Before Mechanization (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1986), pp. 14–15.
- K. Greene, 'Technology and innovation in context: the Roman background to medieval and later developments', Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 7 (1994), p. 29.
- R.J. Mainstone, 'Questioning Hagia Sophia', in Hagia Sophia from the Age of Justinian to thePresent, ed. R. Mark and A.S. Cakmak, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992), p. 174.
- J. Fitchen, The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1961), p. 3.
- H.J. Cowan, 'Structural Design by Observation of Failures: How the Gothic Master Masons Determined the Dimensions of their Structures', Architectural Science Review, vol. 35 (1992), pp. 51–58.
- R.J. Mainstone, 'The springs of invention revisited', Journal of the Institution of Structural Engineers, vol. 73, no. 22 (1995), p. 392.
- A recent study is N. Hiscock, The Wise Master Builder: Platonic Geometry in Plans of MedievalAbbeys and Cathedrals (Ashgate, Aldershot, 2000).
- The point can be exemplified more fully in the following way. Say that two presumably relateddimensions are measured to be 10 m and 16.33 m. Starting with the 10 m dimension, then the second one, by different rules, should be:
- It is, however, the theme of Cowan, op. cit. (28).
- For completeness sake it should be added that early engineering design, in addition to applying rules of proportion, geometrically or numerically constructed, and rules of experience, some-times made use of rules of experiment derived from objective testing. An example is Philo of Byzantium's 'formula' for the design of artillery pieces. There is no suggestion of anything comparable for structures.
- There is some consideration of this approach to bridge design in C. O'Connor, Roman Bridges(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993), pp. 163–71.
- Alberti's rule is given in H. Straub, A History of Civil Engineering (Leonard Hill, London, 1952),p. 90. For Smeaton and Gautier see E.C. Ruddock, 'Bridges', in John Smeaton FRS, ed. A.W. Skempton (Thomas Telford, London, 1981), pp. 157–59.
- L.R. Shelby and R. Mark, 'Late Gothic structural design in the "instructions" of Lorenz Lechler', Architectura, vol. 9, no. 2(1979), pp. 113–31.
- S.L. Sanabria, 'The mechanization of design in the 16th century: the structural formulae of Rodrigo Gil de Hontanon', Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 41, no. 4 (1982), pp. 281–93.
- For some discussion of Blondel's rule see W. Addis, Structural Engineering: The Nature of Theory and Design (Ellis Horwood, London, 1990), pp. 140–47.
- Professor Jacques Heyman has long maintained that models were used; see, for example, J. Heyman, op. cit. (9), pp. 25–26 and similarly J. Heyman, 'The Structural Analysis of Gothic Architecture', Proceedings of the Royal Institution, vol. 59, (1987), p. 221.
- Sir C.A. Parsons, 'Presidential Address to the Institution of Junior Engineers, 1899' in Scien-tific Papers and Addresses of the Hon. Sir Charles A.Parsons, ed. G.L. Parsons (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1934), p. 25.
- C.W. Condit, Review of R. Mark, op. cit. (10) in Technology and Culture, vol. 24, no. 2(1983),p. 262.
- C.H. Krinsky, 'Seventy-Eight Vitruvius Manuscripts', Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, vol. xxx, (1967), pp. 36–70.
- W.B. Dinsmoor, 'The Literary Remains of Sebastiano Serlio', Art Bulletin, vol. 24 (1942), p. 57.
- This point is noticed by H-W. Kruft, A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to the Present (Princeton Architectural Press, 1994) p. 31 and also A. Tcherikover, 'A Carolingian Lesson in Vitruvius', in Medieval Architecture and its Intellectual Context: Studies in Honour of Peter Kidson, ed. E. Fernie and P. Crossley (Hambledon Press, London, 1990), pp. 266–67.
- P. Frankl, The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpretations through Eight Centuries (PrincetonUniversity Press, 1960), pp. 88–89.
- Ibid., p. 99
- J. Harvey, The Medieval Architect (Wayland, London, 1972), p. 21.
- P. Frankl, op. cit. (45), p. 103.
- J. Harvey, 'Medieval Design', Transactions of the Ancient Monuments Society, vol. vi (1958),p. 60.
- H-W. Kruft, op. cit. (44), p. 39.
- J.B. Ward-Perkins, `Vitruvius Pollio', Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York, 1978),vol. XV, p. 516.
- L. White jnr., Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1978), p. 91. There is a sense in which Lynn White's position is confirmed by John Harvey when he observes of Vitruvius' book 'that its structural precepts had to a large extent passed into the common body of European technical tradition'; see J. Harvey, op. cit. (49), p. 59.
- K.J. Conant, Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture: 800 to 1200 (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1993), p. 200; and also K.J. Conant, 'The After-life of Vitruvius in the Middle Ages', Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 27 (1968), p. 33.
- H-W. Kruft, op. cit. (44), pp. 35,31 & 31.
- Vitruvius, Ten Books on Architecture, VI, iii, 3 and IX, Pref., 4–5.
- J. James, Chartres: The Masons who built a Legend (Routledge; London, 1985), pp. 32–33; 36–39; 93–101.
- T. Cocke and P. Kidson, Salisbury Cathedral: Perspectives on the Architectural History (HMSO,London, 1993), pp. 92–93.
- H-W. Kruft, op. cit. (44), p. 40.
- C.S. Smith and J.G. Hawthorne, `Mappae Clavicula: A Little Key to the World of MedievalTechniques', Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 64, pt. 4(1974), pp. 3–123. Aspects of the Mappae Clavicula relating to building are discussed in the following: J. Mesqui, Le Pont en France avant le Temps des Ingénieurs (Picard, Paris, 1986), pp. 162–64,229-30,240, and 256; V. Mortet,Formulaire du VIIIe siècle pour la fondation d'édifices et de ponts', Bulletin Monumental, vol. 71 (1907), pp. 442–65.
- Two standard works are: The Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt, ed. T. Bowie (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1959); A. Erlaine-Brandenburg, R. Pernoud, J. Gimpel, and R. Bechmann, Carnet de Villard de Honnecourt (Stock, Paris, 1986).
- See J. Heyman, op. cit. (9), p. 139.
- T. Bowie, op. cit. (60), P1.28.: A. Erlaine-Brandenburg etal., op. cit. (60), P1.17.
- T. Bowie, op. cit. (60), P1.62.: A. Erlaine-Brandenburg etal., op. cit. (60), P1.9.
- O. von Simson, The Gothic Cathedral (Pantheon, New York, 1962), p. 155.
- K.A.C. Cresswell, A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1958), p. 230.
- For Fountains and Tournus see C. Stewart, Simpson's History of Architectural Development:Early Christian, Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture (Longmans, London, 1954), pp. 146–47: for Fontenay and Tournus see R. Stalley, Early Medieval Architecture (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999), pp. 137–38, 177–78.
- C. Stephenson, 'In Praise of Medieval Tinkers', The Journal of Economic History, vol. VIII,no. 1(1948), p. 40.
- These influences are considered in J. Harvey, The Master Builders: Architecture in the Middle Ages (Thames and Hudson, London, 1971), pp. 24–29. See also J. Harvey, The Cathedrals of Spain (Batsford, London, 1957), p. 70 for the suggestion that the derivation of the ribbed vault from Islamic sources might be proven by a line of contact from the Great Mosque at Cordoba to Jaca Cathedral and then to Durham.
- J. Harvey, English Mediaeval Architects; A Biographical Dictionary down to 1550 (Batsford, London, 1954), p. 156. See also J. Harvey, op. cit. (47), p. 96.
- B. Ward-Perkins, From Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages: Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy, A.D.300-850 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984).
- D.R. Hill, Islamic Science and Engineering (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 1993), p. 227.
- Not that they are all represented in equal measure by works which have survived. Churches, castles and bridges predominate. Aqueducts — Coutances, Spoleto, and Salerno, for example — canals and dams are much less common and, moreover, are anything but well studied.
- R.J. Mainstone, Developments in Structural Form (Allen Lane, London, 1975), pp. 213–14.
- J.H. Harvey, Henry Yevele; The Life of an English Architect (Batsford, London, 1944).
- M.N. Boyer, 'Working at the bridge site in late medieval France', in Artistes, artisans, et production art istique, ed. X. Barran Altet, Rennes, 1983.
- A.P. Usher, A History of Mechanical Inventions (Harvard University Press, 1954), pp. 65–66.
- C.S. Smith, 'Remarks on the Discovery of Techniques and on Sources for the Study of Their History', in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. G. Bugliarello and D.B. Doner (University of Illinois Press, Chicago, 1979), p. 34.
- The famous eye-witness account of the fire and description of the subsequent re-building is given in L.F. Salzman, Building in England Down to 1540 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1952), pp. 369–76.
- K.J. Conant, op. cit. (53, 1993), pp. 146, 148, 245, and 284.
- Ibid., p. 279.
- Ibid., p. 274–75.
- R. Stalley, op. cit. (66), p. 136.
- J. Fitchen, op. cit. (27), p. 15.
- Ibid., pp. 16–17
- There may also have been an advantage when a later building was erected on a set of pre-existingfoundations from another, and almost certainly, smaller building.
- A popular and wonderfully entertaining example is D. Macaulay, Cathedral: The Story of ItsConstruction (Coffins, London, 1982).
- For Chartres see A. Prache, Chartres Cathedral: Image of The Heavenly Jerusalem (CNRS, Paris, 1993), pp. 58–61. The very thorough study of Troyes is S. Murray, Building Troyes Cathedral: The Late Gothic Campaigns (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1987).
- End-to-end construction also meant that the foundations of the completed part of a cathedralwould begin to settle before the next campaign had begun. One can visualise the possibility of serious discrepancies in level. How troublesome this was in practice is unclear.
- R. Mark, op. cit. (15), pp. 115–17.
- R. Branner, The Cathedral of Bourges and Its Place in Gothic Architecture (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1989), p. 84.
- J. DeLaine, 'Structural experimentation: the lintel arch, corbel and tie in western Roman architecture', World Archaeology, vol. 21, no. 3 (1990), pp. 418–19.
- R.P. Wilcox, Timber and Iron Reinforcement in Early Buildings (The Society of Antiquaries ofLondon, London, 1981), pp. 35–36. The cisterns in Constantinople are described on pp. 45–49. Wilcox's excellent book is a mine of information on a subject which to date has by no means been studied as fully as its importance merits.
- R.P. Wilcox, op. cit. (92), p. 99. Romanesque and Gothic churches are covered between pp. 89–104.
- R.P. Wilcox, op. cit. (92), p. 100.
- R. Mark, 'Structural Experimentation in Gothic Architecture', American Scientist, vol. 66, Sept—Oct (1978), p. 548.
- Outstandingly, in Gerona Cathedral the widest of all Gothic vaulted naves, no less than 22 m,is supported by wall buttresses only; see N. Coldstream, Medieval Craftsmen: Masons and Sculptors (British Museum Press, London, 1995), pp. 60–61 and especially Fig. 66. The dramatic cross-section of Gerona's nave is shown in J. Harvey, op. cit. (68,1957), p. 146. For hall churches generally see J. Harvey, The Gothic World: A Survey of Architecture and Art (Batsford, London, 1950), Chapter VII, 'Spatial Gothic'.
- M.C. Duffy, `Technomorphology and the Stephenson Traction System', Trans. Newcomen Soc., vol. 54 (1982–83), p. 57.
- Perhaps it is worth pointing out here a distinction between impasse in a general structural principle by comparison with impasse in just one component. For example, the use of wrought-iron linked bars in suspension bridge building led to impasse. The adoption and development of spun-wire cables allowed progress to continue as it still does.
- G.M. Binnie, 'The collapse of the Dale Dyke dam in retrospect', The Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, vol. 11 (1978), pp. 305–24.; and, as a footnote, G.M. Binnie, 'Postscript to 'The collapse of the Dale Dyke dam in retrospect", The Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, vol. 11 (1983), pp. 357–58.
- J.S. Shipway, 'Tay rail bridge centenary — some notes on its construction, 1882-87', Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 86, pt. 1(1989), pp. 1089–97.
- I do not rule out here the possibility, enthusiastically advocated from time-to-time, that the intellectual, and creative nature of engineering can be appreciated, and experienced from his-torical studies, and that the didactic use of such an approach has value. Worth consulting is Sir A. Pugsley, R.J. Mainstone and R.J.M. Sutherland, 'The relevance of history', The Structural Engineer, vol. 52, no. 12 (1974), pp. 441–45 and the following discussion in The Structural Engineer, vol. 53, no. 9 (1975), pp. 387–98. However, what is involved in such an approach has more to do with character, style, and attitude, and less with specific lessons applicable in any quantitative way.