83
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research

Non-prescribed antibiotic use for children at community levels in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

ORCID Icon, , , , &
Article: 57 | Received 25 May 2022, Accepted 20 Sep 2022, Published online: 04 Dec 2023

References

  • O’Neill J: Tackling drug-resistant infections globally: final report and recommendations. 2016, https://amr-review.org/sites/default/files/160525_Final%20paper_with%20cover.pdf. Accessed February 27, 2022.
  • Auta A, Hadi MA, Oga E, Adewuyi EO, Abdu-Aguye SN, Adeloye D, Strickland-Hodge B, Morgan DJ. Global access to antibiotics without prescription in community pharmacies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2019;78(1):8–18.
  • Grigoryan L, Germanos G, Zoorob R, Juneja S, Raphael JL, Paasche-Orlow MK, Trautner BW. Use of antibiotics without a prescription in the U.S. population: a scoping review. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171(4):257–263.
  • Belachew SA, Hall L, Selvey LA. Non-prescription dispensing of antibiotic agents among community drug retail outlets in Sub-Saharan African countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2021;10(1):13.
  • Torres NF, Chibi B, Kuupiel D, Solomon VP, Mashamba-Thompson TP, Middleton LE. The use of non-prescribed antibiotics; prevalence estimates in low-and-middle-income countries. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Public Health. 2021;79(1):2.
  • Padget M, Guillemot D, Delarocque-Astagneau E. Measuring antibiotic consumption in low-income countries: a systematic review and integrative approach. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2016;48(1):27–32.
  • Collignon P, Beggs JJ, Walsh TR, Gandra S, Laxminarayan R. Anthropological and socioeconomic factors contributing to global antimicrobial resistance: a univariate and multivariable analysis. Lancet Planet Health. 2018;2(9):e398–e405.
  • Ocan M, Obuku EA, Bwanga F, Akena D, Richard S, Ogwal-Okeng J, Obua C. Household antimicrobial self-medication: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the burden, risk factors and outcomes in developing countries. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:742.
  • Torres NF, Chibi B, Middleton LE, Solomon VP, Mashamba-Thompson TP. Evidence of factors influencing self-medication with antibiotics in low and middle-income countries: a systematic scoping review. Public Health. 2019;168:92–101.
  • Zoorob R, Grigoryan L, Nash S, Trautner BW. Nonprescription antimicrobial use in a primary care population in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60(9):5527–5532.
  • Ivanovska V, Zdravkovska M, Bosevska G, Angelovska B. Antibiotics for upper respiratory infections: public knowledge, beliefs and self-medication in the Republic of Macedonia. Prilozi. 2013;34(2):59–70.
  • Nguyen NV, Do NTT, Nguyen CTK, Tran TK, Ho PD, Nguyen HH, Vu HTL, Wertheim HFL, van Doorn HR, Lewycka S. Community-level consumption of antibiotics according to the AWaRe (Access, Watch, Reserve) classification in rural Vietnam. JAC Antimicrob Resist. 2020;2(3):dlaa048.
  • Chalker J, Ratanawijitrasin S, Chuc NT, Petzold M, Tomson G. Effectiveness of a multi-component intervention on dispensing practices at private pharmacies in Vietnam and Thailand–a randomized controlled trial. Soc Sci Med. 2005;60(1):131–141.
  • Blanchard J, Solaipandian M, John EB, Pandith M, Jeo B, Saji S, Kumar A, May L, Davey K, Douglass K, et al. Self-prescribing of antibiotics by patients seeking care in Indian emergency departments. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2021;2(2): e12432.
  • Afari-Asiedu S, Hulscher M, Abdulai MA, Boamah-Kaali E, Asante KP, Wertheim HFL. Every medicine is medicine; exploring inappropriate antibiotic use at the community level in rural Ghana. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):1103.
  • Nguyen HH, Ho DP, Vu TLH, Tran KT, Tran TD, Nguyen TKC, van Doorn HR, Nadjm B, Kinsman J, Wertheim H. “I can make more from selling medicine when breaking the rules” - understanding the antibiotic supply network in a rural community in Viet Nam. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):1560.
  • Batista AD, Figueiras A, Zapata-Cachafeiro M, Roque F, Herdeiro MT. Antibiotic dispensation without a prescription worldwide: a systematic review. Antibiotics. 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9110786.
  • Fink G, D’Acremont V, Leslie HH, Cohen J. Antibiotic exposure among children younger than 5 years in low-income and middle-income countries: a cross-sectional study of nationally representative facility-based and household-based surveys. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(2):179–187.
  • WHO: The 2019 WHO AWaRe classification of antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use. In: The 2019 WHO AWaRe classification of antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use. edn. https://www.who.int/news/item/01-10-2019-who-releases-the-2019-aware-classification-antibiotics. Accessed February 27, 2022.
  • Abegaz TM, Belachew SA, Abebe TB, Gebresilassie BM, Teni FS, Woldie HG. Management of children’s acute diarrhea by community pharmacies in five towns of Ethiopia: simulated client case study. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2016;12:515–526.
  • Diwan V, Sabde YD, Byström E, De Costa A. Treatment of pediatric diarrhea: a simulated client study at private pharmacies of Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, India. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2015;9(5):505–511.
  • Miyazaki A, Tung R, Taing B, Matsui M, Iwamoto A, Cox SE. Frequent unregulated use of antibiotics in rural Cambodian infants. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2020;114(6):401–407.
  • Ogbo PU, Aina BA, Aderemi-Williams RI. Management of acute diarrhea in children by community pharmacists in Lagos, Nigeria. Pharm Pract. 2014;12(1):376.
  • Saengcharoen W, Lerkiatbundit S. Practice and attitudes regarding the management of childhood diarrhoea among pharmacies in Thailand. Int J Pharm Pract. 2010;18(6):323–331.
  • Shi L, Chang J, Liu X, Zhai P, Hu S, Li P, Hayat K, Kabba JA, Feng Z, Yang C. Dispensing antibiotics without a prescription for acute cough associated with common cold at community pharmacies in shenyang, northeastern china: a cross-sectional study. Antibiotics. 2020;9(4):163.
  • Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71.
  • Edessa D, Oljira L, Dinsa GD, Asefa F, Assefa N, Dessie Y: Community-level nonprescription and leftover antibiotic uses for children in low and middle-income countries: a meta-analysis of observational studies. 2021, https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD4202128897. Accessed 24 Feb 2022.
  • Hoy D, Brooks P, Woolf A, Blyth F, March L, Bain C, Baker P, Smith E, Buchbinder R. Assessing risk of bias in prevalence studies: modification of an existing tool and evidence of interrater agreement. J Clin Epidemiol. 2012;65(9):934–939.
  • Migliavaca CB, Stein C, Colpani V, Munn Z, Falavigna M. Quality assessment of prevalence studies: a systematic review. J Clin Epidemiol. 2020;127:59–68.
  • McGuinness LA, Higgins JPT. Risk-of-bias VISualization (robvis): an R package and Shiny web app for visualizing risk-of-bias assessments. Res Synth Methods. 2021;12(1):55–61.
  • Ribaldone DG, Petrini E. How to interpret meta-analysis results. Panminerva Med. 2017;59(3):274.
  • Higgins J, Thompson S, Deeks J, Altman D. Statistical heterogeneity in systematic reviews of clinical trials: a critical appraisal of guidelines and practice. J Health Serv Res Policy. 2002;7(1):51–61.
  • Richardson M, Garner P, Donegan S. Interpretation of subgroup analyses in systematic reviews: a tutorial. Clin Epidemiol Glob Health. 2019;7(2):192–198.
  • Borenstein M, Higgins J. Meta-analysis and subgroups. Prev Sci. 2013;14(2):134–143.
  • Ioannidis JP, Trikalinos TA. The appropriateness of asymmetry tests for publication bias in meta-analyses: a large survey. CMAJ. 2007;176(8):1091–1096.
  • Boutron I, Page MJ, Higgins JP, Altman DG, Lundh A, Hróbjartsson A. Considering bias and conflicts of interest among the included studies. In: Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Wiley Online Library. 2019;177-204. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119536604.ch7.
  • Furuya-Kanamori L, Barendregt JJ, Doi SAR. A new improved graphical and quantitative method for detecting bias in meta-analysis. Int J Evid Based Healthc. 2018;16(4):195–203.
  • Sun C, Hu YJ, Wang X, Lu J, Lin L, Zhou X. Influence of leftover antibiotics on self-medication with antibiotics for children: a cross-sectional study from three Chinese provinces. BMJ Open. 2019;9(12):e033679.
  • Chang J, Xu S, Zhu S, Li Z, Yu J, Zhang Y, Zu J, Fang Y, Ross-Degnan D. Assessment of non-prescription antibiotic dispensing at community pharmacies in China with simulated clients: a mixed cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19(12):1345–1354.
  • Hussain A, Ibrahim MI. Management of diarrhoea cases by community pharmacies in 3 cities of Pakistan. EMHJ. 2012;18(6):635–640.
  • Kibuule D, Kagoya HR, Godman B. Antibiotic use in acute respiratory infections in under-fives in Uganda: findings and implications. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2016;14(9):863–872.
  • Lanyero H, Eriksen J, Obua C, StålsbyLundborg C, Nanzigu S, Katureebe A, Kalyango JN, Ocan M. Use of antibacterials in the management of symptoms of acute respiratory tract infections among children under five years in Gulu, northern Uganda: prevalence and determinants. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(6):e0235164.
  • Lanyero H, Ocan M, Obua C, StålsbyLundborg C, Nanzigu S, Katureebe A. J NK, Eriksen J: Antibiotic use among children under five years with diarrhea in rural communities of Gulu, northern Uganda: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1254.
  • Malik UR, Chang J, Hashmi F, Atif N, Basir H, Hayat K, Khan FU, Kabba JA, Lambojon K, Fang Y. A simulated client exploration of nonprescription dispensing of antibiotics at drugstores for pediatric acute diarrhea and upper respiratory infection in Lahore, Pakistan. Infect Drug Resist. 2021;14:1129.
  • Samir N, Hassan MZ, Biswas MAAJ, Chowdhury F, Akhtar Z, Lingam R, Banu S, Homaira N. Antibiotic use for febrile illness among under-5 children in Bangladesh: a nationally representative sample survey. Antibiotics. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10101153.
  • Simon B, Kazaura M. Prevalence and factors associated with parents self-medicating under-fives with antibiotics in bagamoyo district council, tanzania: a cross-sectional study. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2020;14:1445–1453.
  • Togoobaatar G, Ikeda N, Ali M, Sonomjamts M, Dashdemberel S, Mori R, Shibuya K. Survey of non-prescribed use of antibiotics for children in an urban community in Mongolia. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88:930–936.
  • Wu J, Yang F, Yang H, Zhang G, Mu K, Feng J, Wang J, Yin X. Prevalence of antibiotic self-medication behavior and related factors among children aged 0 to 5 years. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2021.1882303.
  • Zhu Y, Luo S, He H, Yan R, Zhou Y, Deng X, Tang X. Non-prescription antibiotic use for cough among chinese children aged under 5 years: a community-based cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051372.
  • Zwisler G, Simpson E, Moodley M. Treatment of diarrhea in young children: results from surveys on the perception and use of oral rehydration solutions, antibiotics, and other therapies in India and Kenya. J Glob Health. 2013;3(1):010403.
  • Shet A, Sundaresan S, Forsberg BC. Pharmacy-based dispensing of antimicrobial agents without prescription in India: appropriateness and cost burden in the private sector. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2015;4(1):1–7.
  • Chang J, Ye D, Lv B, Jiang M, Zhu S, Yan K, Tian Y, Fang Y. Sale of antibiotics without a prescription at community pharmacies in urban China: a multicentre cross-sectional survey. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017;72(4):1235–1242.
  • Koji EM, Gebretekle GB, Tekle TA. Practice of over-the-counter dispensary of antibiotics for childhood illnesses in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a simulated patient encounter study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2019;8(1):1–6.
  • Adeyemi OO, Alabi AS, Adeyemi OA, Talabi OT, Abidakun OM, Joel IY, Stonehouse NJ. Acute gastroenteritis and the usage pattern of antibiotics and traditional herbal medications for its management in a Nigerian community. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(10):e0257837.
  • Al-Noban MS, Elnimeiri MK. Mothers knowledge, attitude and practices regarding acute respiratory infection in children under five years/urban and rural Areas-Al Mukalla city-2022. EJUA-BA. 2022;3(2):93–100.
  • Nyeko R, Otim F, Obiya EM, Abala C. Pre-hospital exposures to antibiotics among children presenting with fever in northern Uganda: a facility-based cross-sectional study. BMC Pediatr. 2022;22(1):1–12.
  • Zawahir S, Le HTT, Nguyen T-A, Beardsley J, Dang AD, Bernays S, Viney K, Cao TH, Drabarek D, Tran HH. Inappropriate supply of antibiotics for common viral infections by community pharmacies in Vietnam: a standardised patient survey. Lancet Reg Health West Pac. 2022;23:100447.
  • Paredes JL, Navarro R, Watanabe T, Morán F, Balmaceda MP, Reateguí A, Elias R, Bardellini M, Ochoa TJ. Knowledge, attitudes and practices of parents towards antibiotic use in rural communities in Peru: a cross-sectional multicentre study. BMC Public Health. 2022;22(1):459.
  • Ocan M, Aono M, Bukirwa C, Luyinda E, Ochwo C, Nsambu E, Namugonza S, Makoba J, Kandaruku E, Muyende H, et al. Medicine use practices in management of symptoms of acute upper respiratory tract infections in children (≤12 years) in Kampala city, Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2017;17(1):732.
  • Al-Shawi MM, Darwish MA, Wahab MMA, Al-Shamlan NA. Misconceptions of parents about antibiotic use in upper respiratory tract infections: A survey in primary schools of the Eastern province, KSA. J Fam Community Med. 2018;25(1):5.
  • Chang J, Lv B, Zhu S, Yu J, Zhang Y, Ye D, Aziz MM, Yang C, Fang Y. Non-prescription use of antibiotics among children in urban China: a cross-sectional survey of knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2018;16(2):163–172.
  • Hallit S, Zahreddine L, Saleh N, Shakaroun S, Lahoud N. Practice of parents and pharmacists regarding antibiotics use in pediatrics: A 2017 cross-sectional study in Lebanese community pharmacies. J Eval Clin Pract. 2020;26(1):181–189.
  • Lin L, Harbarth S, Hargreaves JR, Zhou X, Li L. Large-scale survey of parental antibiotic use for paediatric upper respiratory tract infections in China: implications for stewardship programmes and national policy. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2021;57(4):106302.
  • Lin L, Harbarth S, Wang X, Zhou X. Survey of parental use of antimicrobial drugs for common childhood infections, China. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(7):1517–1520.
  • Mukattash TL, Alkhatatbeh MJ, Andrawos S, Jarab AS, AbuFarha RK, Nusair MB. Parental self-medication of antibiotics for children in Jordan. J Pharm Health Serv Res. 2020;11(1):75–80.
  • Xu J, Wang X, Sun KS, Lin L, Zhou X. Parental self-medication with antibiotics for children promotes antibiotic over-prescribing in clinical settings in China. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2020;9(1):1–8.
  • Xu Y, Lu J, Sun C, Wang X, Hu YJ, Zhou X. A cross-sectional study of antibiotic misuse among Chinese children in developed and less developed provinces. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2020;14(2):129–137.
  • Yu M, Zhao G, StålsbyLundborg C, Zhu Y, Zhao Q, Xu B. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of parents in rural China on the use of antibiotics in children: a cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-112.
  • Yuan J, Du W, Li Z, Deng Q, Ma G. Prevalence and risk factors of self-medication among the pediatric population in China: a national survey. Front Public Health. 2022;9:770709.
  • Edessa D, Sisay M, Hagos B, Amare F. Antimicrobial use and management of childhood diarrhea at community drug retail outlets in eastern Ethiopia: a matched questionnaire-based and simulated patient-case study. Pediatric Health Med Ther. 2022;13:63–79.
  • Zhu Y, Tang X, Yan R, Shao Z, Zhou Y, Deng X, Luo S, He H. Non-prescription antibiotic use for cough among Chinese children under 5 years of age: a community-based cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2021;11(12):e051372.
  • WB: World Bank Country and Lending Groups: Country Classification. 2021, https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups. Accessed 25 Feb 2022.
  • Sedgwick P, Marston L. How to read a funnel plot in a meta-analysis. BMJ. 2015;351:h4718.
  • Sterne JA, Sutton AJ, Ioannidis JP, Terrin N, Jones DR, Lau J, Carpenter J, Rücker G, Harbord RM, Schmid CH, et al. Recommendations for examining and interpreting funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2011;343:d4002.
  • Drucker AM, Fleming P, Chan AW. Research techniques made simple: assessing risk of bias in systematic reviews. J Invest Dermatol. 2016;136(11):e109–e114.
  • Ocan M, Obuku EA, Bwanga F, Akena D, Richard S, Ogwal-Okeng J, Obua C. Household antimicrobial self-medication: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the burden, risk factors and outcomes in developing countries. BMC Public Health. 2015;15(1):1–11.
  • Ingelbeen B, Koirala KD, Verdonck K, Barbé B, Mukendi D, Thong P, El Safi S, Van Duffel L, Bottieau E, van der Sande MAB, et al. Antibiotic use prior to seeking medical care in patients with persistent fever: a cross-sectional study in four low- and middle-income countries. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27(9):1293–1300.
  • Aslam A, Gajdács M, Zin CS, Ab Rahman NS, Ahmed SI, Zafar MZ, Jamshed S. Evidence of the practice of self-medication with antibiotics among the lay public in low-and middle-income countries: a scoping review. Antibiotics. 2020;9(9):597.
  • Tsige AG, Nedi T, Bacha T. Assessment of the management of diarrhoea among children under five in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pediatric Health Med Ther. 2020;11:135–143.
  • Thobari JA, Satria CD, Ridora Y, Watts E, Handley A, Samad S, Bachtiar NS, Bines JE, Soenarto Y, Buttery JP. Antimicrobial use in an Indonesian community cohort 0–18 months of age. PLoS ONE. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219097.
  • Deng P, Yu J, Zhou N, Hu M. Access to medicines for acute illness and antibiotic use in residents: a medicines household survey in Sichuan Province, western China. PLoS ONE. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201349.
  • Erku DA, Mekuria AB, Belachew SA. Inappropriate use of antibiotics among communities of Gondar town, Ethiopia: a threat to the development of antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-017-0272-2.
  • Tillekeratne LG, Bodinayake CK, Dabrera T, Nagahawatte A, Arachchi WK, Sooriyaarachchi A, Stewart K, Watt M, Østbye T, Woods CW. Antibiotic overuse for acute respiratory tract infections in Sri Lanka: a qualitative study of outpatients and their physicians. BMC Fam Pract. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-017-0619-z.
  • Ateshim Y, Bereket B, Major F, Emun Y, Woldai B, Pasha I, Habte E, Russom M. Prevalence of self-medication with antibiotics and associated factors in the community of Asmara, Eritrea: A descriptive cross sectional survey. BMC Public Health. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7020-x.
  • Belachew SA, Hall L, Selvey LA. Non-prescription dispensing of antibiotic agents among community drug retail outlets in Sub-Saharan African countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2021;10(1):1–15.
  • Bogale AA, Amhare AF, Chang J, Bogale HA, Betaw ST, Gebrehiwot NT, Fang Y. Knowledge, attitude, and practice of self-medication with antibiotics among community residents in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2019;17(6):459–466.
  • Do NTT, Vu HTL, Nguyen CTK, Punpuing S, Khan WA, Gyapong M, Asante KP, Munguambe K, Gómez-Olivé FX, John-Langba J, et al. Community-based antibiotic access and use in six low-income and middle-income countries: a mixed-method approach. Lancet Glob Health. 2021;9(5):e610–e619.
  • ElongEkambi GA, OkallaEbongue C, Penda IC, Nnanga Nga E, Mpondo Mpondo E, EboumbouMoukoko CE. Knowledge, practices and attitudes on antibiotics use in Cameroon: Self-medication and prescription survey among children, adolescents and adults in private pharmacies. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(2):e0212875.
  • Poyongo BP, Sangeda RZ. Pharmacists’ knowledge, attitude and practice regarding the dispensing of antibiotics without prescription in tanzania: an explorative cross-sectional study. Pharmacy. 2020;8(4):238.
  • Haque M, Rahman NAA, McKimm J, Kibria GM, Majumder MAA, Haque SZ, Islam MZ, Abdullah SLB, Daher AM, Zulkifli Z, et al. Self-medication of antibiotics: investigating practice among university students at the Malaysian national defence university. Infect Drug Resist. 2019;12:1333–1351.
  • Karuniawati H, Hassali MAA, Suryawati S, Ismail WI, Taufik T, Hossain MS. Assessment of knowledge, attitude, and practice of antibiotic use among the population of boyolali, indonesia: a cross-sectional study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168258.
  • Kuang L, Liu Y, Wei W, Song X, Li X, Liu Q, Hong W, Liu Q, Li J, Chen Z. Non-prescription sale of antibiotics and service quality in community pharmacies in Guangzhou, China: a simulated client method. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(12):e0243555.
  • Nusair MB, Al-azzam S, Alhamad H, Momani MY. The prevalence and patterns of self-medication with antibiotics in Jordan: a community-based study. Int J Clin Pract. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.13665.
  • Srour K. Self-medication and over-the-counter dispensing of antibiotics in Egypt_ prevalence, reasons and outcomes. A systematic review. UiT The Arctic University of Norway. 2020. https://hdl.handle.net/10037/20260.
  • Hammour KA, Jalil MA, Hammour WA. An exploration of parents’ knowledge, attitudes and practices towards the use of antibiotics in childhood upper respiratory tract infections in a tertiary Jordanian Hospital. SPJ. 2018;26(6):780–785.
  • Nasimfar A, Sadeghi E, AmuzMehr A. Evaluation of knowledge, attitude, and practice of parents on the use of antibiotics for acute upper respiratory tract infections in children admitted to Motahari Hospital of Urmia in 2017–2018. Asian J Pharm. 2018;12(2):S558–S564.
  • Salama RAA, Bader KN, Rahman AS, Hashmi FY. Parents knowledge, attitudes and practice of use of antibiotics for upper respiratory tract infections in children: a cross-sectional study in ras al khaimah, United Arab Emirates. Epidemiol Biostat Public Health. 2018. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10070802.
  • Aziz MM, Haider F, Rasool MF, Hashmi FK, Bahsir S, Li P, Zhao M, Alshammary TM, Fang Y. Dispensing of non-prescribed antibiotics from community pharmacies of Pakistan: a cross-sectional survey of pharmacy staff’s opinion. Antibiotics. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10050482.
  • Hicks JP, Latham SM, Huque R, Das M, Newell J, Abdullah S, Al Azdi Z, Jahan I, Rassi C, Hamade P. Antibiotic practices among household members and their domestic animals within rural communities in Cumilla district, Bangladesh: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1–10.
  • Roien R, Bhandari D, Hosseini SMR, Mosawi SH, Ataie MA, Ozaki A, Martellucci CA, Kotera Y, Delshad MH, Sawano T, et al. Prevalence and determinants of self-medication with antibiotics among general population in Afghanistan. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2021.1951229.
  • Allwell-Brown G, Hussain-Alkhateeb L, Kitutu FE, Strömdahl S, Mårtensson A, Johansson EW. Trends in reported antibiotic use among children under 5 years of age with fever, diarrhoea, or cough with fast or difficult breathing across low-income and middle-income countries in 2005–17: a systematic analysis of 132 national surveys from 73 countries. Lancet Glob Health. 2020;8(6):e799–e807.
  • Ngocho JS, Horumpende PG, de Jonge MI, Mmbaga BT. Inappropriate treatment of community-acquired pneumonia among children under five years of age in Tanzania. IJID. 2020;93:56–61.
  • Hijazi K, Joshi C, Gould IM. Challenges and opportunities for antimicrobial stewardship in resource-rich and resource-limited countries. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2019;17(8):621–634.
  • Davido B, Bouchand F, Calin R, Makhloufi S, Lagrange A, Senard O, Perronne C, Villart M, Salomon J, Dinh A. High rates of off-label use in antibiotic prescriptions in a context of dramatic resistance increase: a prospective study in a tertiary hospital. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2016;47(6):490–494.
  • Elbasha EH. Deadweight loss of bacterial resistance due to overtreatment. Health Econ. 2003;12(2):125–138.
  • Marzan M, Islam DZ, Lugova H, Krishnapillai A, Haque M, Islam S. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of antimicrobial uses and resistance among public university students in Bangladesh. Infect Drug Resist. 2021;14:519–533.
  • Williams P, Cotta MO, Roberts JA. Pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of β-lactams and therapeutic drug monitoring: from theory to practical issues in the intensive care unit. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;40(4):476–487.
  • Odenholt I, Gustafsson I, Löwdin E, Cars O. Suboptimal antibiotic dosage as a risk factor for selection of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: in vitro kinetic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(2):518–523.
  • Gu J, Zhao J, Huang Y, Yang W, Ren Z, Li W, Fan Y, Zhang Q, Zhang F, Fu Y. Use of antibiotics by urban and rural residents in Heilongjiang Province, China: cross-sectional study. TMIH. 2015;20(12):1815–1822.
  • Kenyon C, Manoharan-Basil SS. Cultural drivers of antibiotic consumption in high-income countries: a global ecological analysis. Microb Drug Resist (Larchmont, NY). 2020;26(9):1063–1070.
  • Deschepper R, Grigoryan L, Lundborg CS, Hofstede G, Cohen J, Kelen GV, Deliens L, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM. Are cultural dimensions relevant for explaining cross-national differences in antibiotic use in Europe? BMC Health Serv Res. 2008;8:123.
  • Kopsidas I, Vergnano S, Spyridis N, Zaoutis T, Patel S. A survey on national pediatric antibiotic stewardship programs, networks and guidelines in 23 European countries. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2020;39(11):e359–e362.
  • Yaya S, Bishwajit G. Burden of acute respiratory infections among under-five children in relation to household wealth and socioeconomic status in Bangladesh. Tro Med Infect Dis. 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010036.
  • Hanifi SM, Mahmood SS, Bhuiya A. Cause-specific mortality and socioeconomic status in Chakaria, Bangladesh. Glob Health Action. 2014;7:25473.
  • Mahumud RA, Alam K, Renzaho AMN, Sarker AR, Sultana M, Sheikh N, Rawal LB, Gow J. Changes in inequality of childhood morbidity in Bangladesh 1993–2014: a decomposition analysis. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(6):e0218515.
  • Rheingans R, Anderson JDT, Bagamian KH, Laytner LA, Pecenka CJ, Gilani SSA, Ahmed M. Effects of geographic and economic heterogeneity on the burden of rotavirus diarrhea and the impact and cost-effectiveness of vaccination in Pakistan. Vaccine. 2018;36(51):7780–7789.
  • Walker CLF, Rudan I, Liu L, Nair H, Theodoratou E, Bhutta ZA, O’Brien KL, Campbell H, Black RE. Global burden of childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea. Lancet (London, England). 2013;381(9875):1405–1416.
  • Glass RI, Bresee JS, Turcios R, Fischer TK, Parashar UD, Steele AD. Rotavirus vaccines: targeting the developing world. J Infect Dis. 2005;192(Suppl 1):S160–166.
  • He Z, Bishwajit G, Zou D, Yaya S, Cheng Z, Zhou Y. Burden of common childhood diseases in relation to improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) among Nigerian children. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061241.
  • Bhutta ZA. Drug resistant infections in poor countries: a major burden on children. BMJ. 2008;336(7650):948–949.
  • Murray CJ, Lopez AD. Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk factors: Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet (London, England). 1997;349(9063):1436–1442.
  • Olaru ID, Kibuule D, Godman B. Implications of antibiotic exposure among children in low-income and middle income countries. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(2):146–147.
  • Zeru T, Berihu H, Buruh G, Gebrehiwot H, Zeru M. Parental knowledge and practice on antibiotic use for upper respiratory tract infections in children, in aksum town health institutions, northern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. Pan Afr Med J. 2020. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2020.35.142.17848.
  • Mboya EA, Davies ML, Horumpende PG, Ngocho JS. Inadequate knowledge on appropriate antibiotics use among clients in the Moshi municipality Northern Tanzania. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(9):e0239388.
  • Mahase E: Non-prescription antibiotic use is “public health problem” in US, finds study. In: vol. 366. British Medical Journal Publishing Group; 2019: Accessed February 27, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l4836.
  • Abdelaziz AI, Tawfik AG, Rabie KA, Omran M, Hussein M, Abou-Ali A, et al. Quality of community pharmacy practice in antibiotic self-medication encounters: a simulated patient study in upper Egypt. Antibiotics. 2019;8(2):35.
  • Madden JM, Quick JD, Ross-Degnan D, Kafle KK. Undercover careseekers: simulated clients in the study of health provider behavior in developing countries. Soc Sci Med. 1997;45(10):1465–1482.
  • Schoenthaler A, Albright G, Hibbard J, Goldman R. Simulated conversations with virtual humans to improve patient-provider communication and reduce unnecessary prescriptions for antibiotics: a repeated measure pilot study. JMIR Med Educ. 2017;3(1):e7.
  • Mate I, Come CE, Gonçalves MP, Cliff J, Gudo ES. Knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding antibiotic use in Maputo City Mozambique. PLoS ONE. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221452.
  • Wang X, Lin L, Xuan Z, Li L, Zhou X. Keeping antibiotics at home promotes self-medication with antibiotics among Chinese university students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040687.
  • Auta A, Hadi M, Oga E, Adewuyi E, Abdu-Aguye S, Adeloye D, Strickland-Hodge B, Morgan D. Global access to antibiotics without prescription in community pharmacies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2018;78(1):8–18.
  • Alhomoud F, Aljamea Z, Almahasnah R, Alkhalifah K, Basalelah L, Alhomoud FK. Self-medication and self-prescription with antibiotics in the Middle East—do they really happen? A systematic review of the prevalence, possible reasons, and outcomes. Int J Infect Dis. 2017;57:3–12.
  • Om C, Daily F, Vlieghe E, McLaughlin JC, McLaws M-L. Pervasive antibiotic misuse in the Cambodian community: antibiotic-seeking behaviour with unrestricted access. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2017;6(1):1–8.
  • Cortez J, Rosário E, Pires JE, Taborda Lopes J, Francisco M, Vlieghe E, Brito M. Antimicrobial storage and antibiotic knowledge in the community: a cross-sectional pilot study in north-western Angola. Int J Infect Dis. 2017;60:83–87.
  • Barker AK, Brown K, Ahsan M, Sengupta S, Safdar N. What drives inappropriate antibiotic dispensing? A mixed-methods study of pharmacy employee perspectives in Haryana India. BMJ Open. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013190.
  • Barker AK, Brown K, Ahsan M, Sengupta S, Safdar N. Social determinants of antibiotic misuse: a qualitative study of community members in Haryana, India. BMC Public Health. 2017;17(1):333.
  • Dobrescu A, Nussbaumer-Streit B, Klerings I, Wagner G, Persad E, Sommer I, Herkner H, Gartlehner G. Restricting evidence syntheses of interventions to English-language publications is a viable methodological shortcut for most medical topics: a systematic review. J Clin Epidemiol. 2021;137:209–217.
  • Jüni P, Holenstein F, Sterne J, Bartlett C, Egger M. Direction and impact of language bias in meta-analyses of controlled trials: empirical study. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31(1):115–123.
  • Moher D, Pham B, Lawson ML, Klassen TP. The inclusion of reports of randomised trials published in languages other than English in systematic reviews. Health Technol Assess. 2003;7(41):1–90.
  • Morrison A, Polisena J, Husereau D, Moulton K, Clark M, Fiander M, Mierzwinski-Urban M, Clifford T, Hutton B, Rabb D. The effect of English-language restriction on systematic review-based meta-analyses: a systematic review of empirical studies. Int J Technol Assess Health Care. 2012;28(2):138–144.
  • Pham B, Klassen TP, Lawson ML, Moher D. Language of publication restrictions in systematic reviews gave different results depending on whether the intervention was conventional or complementary. J Clin Epidemiol. 2005;58(8):769–776.