Hypothesis for Temporal Displacement of Metabolic and Neuronal Accommodation in Smoking Addiction

References

• Benowitz , N L and Jacob , P 3rd . 1993 . Nicotine and cotinine elimination pharmacokinetics in smokers and nonsmokers . Clin Pharmacol Ther. , 53 ( 3 ) Mar : 316 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossing , M A . 1998 . Genetic influences on smoking: candidate genes . Environ Health Perspect. , 106 ( 5 ) May : 231 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smoking Cessation . 1996 . Information for Specialists . American Family Physician , 53 ( 8 ) June : 2599 – 607 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silverstein , B . 1982 . Cigarette smoking, nicotine addiction, and relaxation . J Pers Soc Psychol , 42 ( 5 ) : 946 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fant , R V , Schuh , K J and Stitzer , M L . 1995 . Response to smoking as a function of prior smoking amounts . Psychopharmacology (Berl) , 119 ( 4 ) June : 385 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1997 . Harvard Mental Health Letter , 13 ( 11 ) May : 1 – 5 .
   Google Scholar
• Benowitz , N L . 1996 . Pharmacology of nicotine: addiction and therapeutics . Annual Rev Pharmacol Toxicol , 36 : 597 – 613 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zia , S , Ndoye , A , Nguyen , V T and Grando , S A . 1997 . Nicotine enhances expression of the alpha 3, alpha 4, alpha 5, and alpha 7 nicotinic receptors modulating calcium metabolism and regulating adhesion and motility of respiratory epithelial cells . Res Com-mun Mol pathol Pharmacol. , 97 ( 3 ) Sep : 243 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wessler , I , Kirkpatrick , C J and Racke , K . 1998 . Non-neuronal acetylcholine, a locally acting molecule, widely distributed in biological systems: expression and function in humans . Pharmacol Ther. , 77 ( 1 ) Jan : 59 – 79 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colins , A C and Marks , M J . 1996 . Are nicotinic receptors activated or inhibited following chronic nicotine treatment? . Drug Development Research , 38 ( 3–4 ) : 231 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• Zia , S , Ndoye , A , Nguyen , V T and Grando , S A . 1997 . Nicotine enhances expression of the alpha 3, alpha 4, alpha 5, and alpha 7 nicotinic receptors modulating calcium metabolism and regulating adhesion and motility of respiratory epithelial cells . Res Com-mun Mol pathol Pharmacol. , 97 ( 3 ) Sep : 243 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fattinger , K , Verotta , D and Benowitz , N L . 1997 . Pharmacodynamics of acute tolerance to multiple nicotinic effects in humans . J Pharmacol Exp Ther. , 281 ( 3 ) June : 1238 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pidoplichko , V I , DeBiasi , M , Williams , J T and Dani , J A . 1997 . Nicotine activates and desensitizes midbrain dopamine neurons . Nature , 390 ( 6658 ) Nov : 401 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pich , E M , Pagliusi , S R Tessari , M . 1997 . Common neural substrates for the addictive properties of nicotine and cocaine . Science , 275 ( 5296 ) Jan : 83 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontieri , F E , Tanda , G , Orzi , F and Di Chiara , G . 1996 . Effects of nicotine on the nucleus accumbens and similarity to those of addictive drugs . Nature , 382 ( 6588 ) July : 255 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , P H and Boulton , A A . 1987 . Irreversible inhibition of monoamine oxidase by some components of cigarette smoke . Life Sci. , 10 ( 6 ) Aug : 675 – 82 . 41
   Google Scholar
• Berlin , I , Said , S Spreux-Varoquaux , O . 1995 . Monoamine oxidase A and B activities in heavy smokers . Biol Psychiatry , 38 ( 11 ) Dec 1 : 756 – 61 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowler , J S , Volkow , N D Wang , G J . 1996 . Brain monoamine oxidase A inhibition in cigarette smokers . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA , 26 ( 24 ) Nov : 14065 – 9 . 93
   Google Scholar
• Berlin , I , Spreux-Varoquaux , O Said , S . 1997 . Effects of past history of major depression on smoking characteristics, monoamine oxidase-A and -B activities and withdrawal symptoms in dependent smokers . Drug Alcohol Depend. , 45 ( 1–2 ) April 14 : 31 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin , I , Said , S Spreux-Varoquaux , O . 1995 . A reversible monoamine oxidase A inhibitor (moclobemide) facilitates smoking cessation and abstinence in heavy, dependent smokers . Clin Pharmacol Ther. , 58 ( 4 ) Oct : 444 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , S M , Munoz , R F , Reus , V I and Sees , K L . 1993 . Nicotine, negative affect, and depression . J Consult Clin Psychol , 61 ( 5 ) : 761 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1992 . Respiratory health effects of passive smoking , U. S. Environmental Protection Agency . EPA/600/6-90/006F
   Google Scholar
• Lee , B L , Benowitz , N L and Jacob , P 3rd . 1987 . Influence of tobacco abstinence on the disposition kinetics and effects of nicotine . Clin Pharmacol Ther. , 41 ( 4 ) April : 474 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benowitz , N L and Jacob , P 3rd . 1993 . Nicotine and cotinine elimination pharmacokinet-ics in smokers and nonsmokers . Clin Pharmacol Ther. , 53 ( 3 ) Mar : 316 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatsukami , D K , Grillo , M , Pentel , P R , Qncken , C and Bliss , R . 1997 . Safety of cotinine in humans: physiologic, subjective, and cognitive effects . Pharmacol Biochem Behav. , 57 ( 4 ) Aug : 643 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walle , T , Walle , U K , Cowart , T D , Conradi , E C and Gaffney , T E . 1987 . Selective induction of propranolol metabolism by smoking: additional effects on renal clearance of metabolites . J Pharmacol Exp Ther. , 241 ( 3 ) June : 928 – 33 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grygiel , J J and Birkett , D J . 1981 . Cigarette smoking and theophylline clearance and metabolism . Clin Pharmacol Ther. , 30 ( 4 ) Oct : 491 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eldon , M A , Leuker , P W , MacGee , J and Ritschel , W A . 1987 . Lack of effect of withdrawal from cigarette smoking on theophylline pharmacokinetics . J Clin Pharmacol , 27 ( 3 ) : 221 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , L G . 1989 . Recent developments in the study of the effects of cigarette smoking on clinical pharmacokinetics and clinical pharmacodynamics . Clin Pharmacoki-net. , 17 ( 2 ) Aug : 90 – 108 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer , U A . 1996 . Overview of enzymes of drug metabolism . J Pharmacokinet Bio-pharm. , 24 ( 5 ) Oct : 449 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bridges , R B , Humble , J W , Turbek , J A and Rehm , S R . 1986 . Smoking history, cigarette yield and smoking behavior as determinants of smoke exposure . Eur J Respir Dis Suppl. , 146 : 129 – 37 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baer , L and Radichevich , I . 1985 . Cigarette smoking in hypertensive patients. Blood pressure and endocrine responses . Am J Med. , 78 ( 4 ) April : 564 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornemisza , P and Suciu , I . 1980 . Effect of cigarette smoking on the blood glucose level in normals and diabetics . Med Interne. , 18 ( 4 ) Oct-Dec : 353 – 6 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cerami , C , Founds , H Nicholl , I . 1997 . Tobacco smoke is a source of reactive glycation products . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA , 94 ( 25 ) Dec 9 : 13915 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celada , M M , Reguero , J R and Cubero , G I . 1997 . The interrelationship among tobacco consumption, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and leukocyte counts . J Cardio-vasc Risk. , 4 ( 4 ) Aug : 279 – 81 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chow , C K , Thacker , R R Changchit , C . 1986 . Lower levels of vitamin C and carotenes in plasma of cigarette smokers . J Am Coll Nutr , 5 ( 3 ) : 305 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keith , R E and Mossholder , S B . 1986 . Ascorbic acid status of smoking and nonsmoking adolescent females . Int J Vitam Nutr Res , 56 ( 4 ) : 363 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schectman , G , Byrd , J C and Gruchow , H W . 1989 . The influence of smoking on vitamin C status in adults . Am J Public Health , 79 ( 2 ) Feb : 158 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stryker , W S , Kaplan , L A Stein , E A . 1988 . The relation of diet, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption to plasma beta-carotene and alpha-tocopherol levels . Am J Epidemiol. , 127 ( 2 ) Feb : 283 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , R . 1991 . Assessment of the roles of vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene in the modulation of oxidant stress mediated by cigarette smoke-activated phagocytes . Am J Clin Nutr. , 53 ( 1 Suppl ) Jan : 358S – 361S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell-Briefel , R , Bates , M W and Kuller , L H . 1985 . The relationship of plasma carote-noids to health and biochemical factors in middle aged men . Am J Epidemiol. , 122 ( 5 ) Nov : 741 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piyathilake , C J , Hine , R J Dasanayake , A P . 1992 . Effect of smoking on folate levels in buccal mucosal cells . Int J Cancer , 52 ( 4 ) Oct 21 : 556 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , E R 3rd , Appel , L J , Jiang , L and Risby , T H . 1997 . Association between cigarette smoking and lipid peroxidation in a controlled feeding study . Circulation , 96 ( 4 ) Aug 19 : 1097 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benowitz , N L and Gourlay , S G . 1997 . Cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine: implications for nicotine replacement therapy . J Am Coll Cardiol. , 29 ( 7 ) June : 1422 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Audrain , J E , Klesges , R C and Klesges , L M . 1995 . Relationship between obesity and the metabolic effects of smoking in women . Health Psychology , 14 ( 2 ) March : 116 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams , M R , Jessuup , W and Celermajer , D S . 1997 . Cigarette smoking is associated with increased human monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells . J Am Coll Cardiol , 29 ( 3 ) Mar 1 : 491 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Failla , M , Grappiolo , A Carugo , S . 1997 . Effects of cigarette smoking on carotid and radial artery dispensability . J Hypertens. , 15 ( 12 ) Dec : 1659 – 64 . (Pt 2)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubick , M A and Keen , C L . 1991 . Influence of nicotine on tissue trace element concentrations and tissue antioxidant defense . Biol Trace Elem Res. , 31 ( 2 ) Nov : 97 – 109 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Touitou , Y , Godard , J P Ferment , O . 1987 . Prevalence of magnesium and potassium deficiencies in the elderly . Clin Chem. , 33 ( 4 ) Apr : 518 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preston , A M . 1991 . Cigarette smoking-nutritional implications . Prog Food Nutr Sci , 15 ( 4 ) : 183 – 217 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Piyathilake , C J , Macaluso , M Hine , R J . 1995 . Cigarette smoking, intracellular vitamin deficiency, and occurrence of micronuclei in epithelial cells of the buccal mucosa . Cancer Epidem Biomarkers Prev. , 4 ( 7 ) Oct-Nov : 751 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowal , N E . 1988 . Urinary cadmium and beta 2-microglobulin: correlation with nutrition and smoking history . J Toxicol Environ Health , 25 ( 2 ) : 179 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mussalo-Rauhamaa , H , Leppanen , A , Salmela , S S and Pyysalo , H . 1986 . Cigarettes as a source of some trace and heavy metals and pesticides in man . Arch Environ Health. , 41 ( 1 ) Jan-Feb : 49 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preston , A M . 1991 . Cigarette smoking-nutritional implications . Prog Food Nutr Sci , 15 ( 4 ) : 183 – 217 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Benowitz , N L , Lee , B L and Jacob , P 3rd . 1989 . Nicotine gum and theophylline metabolism . Biomed Pharmacother , 43 ( 1 ) : 1 – 3 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benowitz , N L and Gourlay , S G . 1997 . Cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine: implications for nicotine replacement therapy . J Am Coll Cardiol. , 29 ( 7 ) June : 1422 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris , J B . 1997 . Dosimetry, toxicity and carcinogenicity of inspired acetaldehyde in the rat . Mutation Research , 380 ( 1–2 ) Oct 31 : 113 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reznick , A , Cross , C E Hu , M L . 1992 . Modification of plasma proteins by cigarette smoke as measured by protein carbonyl formation . Biochem J , 286 ( pt 2 ) : 607 – 11 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen , E X , Fusch , C Jaeger , P . 1995 . Impact of chronic cigarette smoking on body composition and fuel metabolism . J Clin Endocrinol Metab. , 80 ( 7 ) July : 2181 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross , J , Lee , J and Stitzer , M L . 1997 . Nicotine-containing versus de-nicotinized cigarettes: effects on craving and withdrawal . Pharmacol Biochem Behav. , 57 ( 1–2 ) May-Jun : 159 – 65 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Butschky , M F , Bailey , D , Henningfield , J E and Pickworth , W B . 1995 . Smoking without nicotine delivery decreases withdrawal in 12-hour abstinent smokers . Pharmacol Biochem Behav. , 50 ( 1 ) Jan : 91 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dallongeville , J , Marecaux , N Richard , F . 1996 . Cigarette smoking is associated with differences in nutritional habits and related to lipoprotein alterations independently of food and alcohol intake . Eur J Clin Nutr. , 50 ( 10 ) Oct : 647 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maragon , K , Herberth , B Lecomte , E . 1998 . Diet, antioxidant status, and smoking habits in French men . Am J Clin Nutrit. , 67 ( 2 ) February : 231 – 39 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornig , D . 1981 . Metabolism and requirements of ascorbic acid in man . S Afr Med J. , 60 ( 21 ) Nov 21 : 818 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reilly , M , Delanty , N , Lawson , J A and Fitz Gerald , G A . 1996 . Modulation of oxidant stress in vivo in chronic cigarette smokers . Circulation , 94 ( 1 ) July : 19 – 25 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menzel , B . 1992 . Antioxidant vitamins and prevention of lung disease . Ann NY Acad Sci. , 669 Sep 30 : 141 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehr , H A , Weyrich , A S Saetzler , R K . 1997 . Vitamin C blocks inflammatory platelet-activating factor mimetics created by cigarette smoking . J Clin Invest , 99 ( 10 ) : 2358 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiffman , S , Pary , J A Gnys , M . 1995 . Nicotine withdrawal in chippers and regular smokers: subjective and cognitive effects . Health Psychol. , 14 ( 4 ) Jul : 301 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiffman , S . 1989 . Tobacco “chippers”-individual differences in tobacco dependence . Psychopharmacology (Berl) , 97 ( 4 ) : 539 – 47 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , T A , House , R F Jr. Croghan , I T . 1996 . Nicotine patch therapy in adolescent smokers . Pediatrics , 98 ( 4 ) October : 659 – 67 . (Pt 1)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty , K , Kinnunen , T , Militello , F S and Garvey , A J . 1995 . Urges to smoke during the first month of abstinence: relationship to relapse and predictors . Psychopharmacolo-gy (Berl) , 119 ( 2 ) May : 171 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings , K M , Giovino , G , Ja'en , C R and Emrich , L J . 1985 . Reports of smoking withdrawal symptoms over a 21 day period of abstinence . Addict Behav , 10 ( 4 ) : 373 – 81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Killen , J D and Fortmann , S P . 1997 . Craving is associated with smoking relapse: findings from three prospective studies . Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. , 5 ( 2 ) May : 137 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes , J R . 1992 . Tobacco withdrawal in self-quitters . J Consult Clin Psychol , 60 ( 5 ) : 689 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leischow , S J and Stitzer , M L . 1991 . Smoking cessation and weight gain . Br J Addict. , 86 ( 5 ) May : 577 – 81 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rasky , E , Stronegger , W J and Freidl , W . 1996 . The relationship between body weight and patterns of smoking in women and men . Int J Epidemiol. , 25 ( 6 ) Dec : 1208 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kos , J , Hasenfratz , M and Battig , K . 1997 . Effects of a 2-Day abstinence from smoking on dietary, cognitive, subjective, and physiologic parameters among younger and older female smokers . Physiol Behav. , 61 ( 5 ) May : 671 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard , F , Marecaux , N Dallongeville , J . 1997 . Effect of smoking cessation on lipoprotein A-I and lipoprotein A-I: A-II levels . Metabolism , 46 ( 6 ) June : 711 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez , E , La Vecchia , C D'Avanzo , B . 1997 . Quitting smoking in northern Italy: a cross-sectional analysis of 2,621 subjects . Eur J Epid. , 13 ( 3 ) April : 267 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caan , B , Coates , A Schaefer , C . 1996 . Women gain weight 1 year after smoking cessation while dietary intake temporarily increases . J Am Dietetic Assoc. , 96 ( 11 ) Nov : 1150 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eliasson , B , Attvall , S , Taskinen , N R and Smith , U . 1997 . Smoking cessation improves insulin sensitivity in healthy middle-aged men . Eur J. Clin Invest. , 27 ( 5 ) May : 450 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gourlay , S G , Benowitz , N L , Forbes , A and McNeil , J J . 1997 . Determinants of plasma concentrations of nicotine and cotinine during cigarette smoking and transdermal nicotine treatment . Eur J Clin Pharmacol , 51 ( 5 ) : 407 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benowitz , N L , Zevin , S and Jacob , P 3rd . 1997 . Sources of variability in nicotine and coti-nine levels with use of nicotine nasal spray, transdermal nicotine, and cigarette smoking . Br J Clin Pharmacol. , 43 ( 3 ) Mar : 259 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks , J L , Hill , E M , Pomerleau , C S , Muss , S A and Blow , F C . 1997 . Nicotine dependence and withdrawal in alcoholic and nonalcoholic ever-smokers . J Subst Abuse Treat. , 14 ( 6 ) Nov-Dec : 521 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerman , C , Caporaso , N Main , D . 1998 . Depression and self-medication with nicotine . Health Psychology , 17 ( 1 ) Jan : 56 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benowitz , N L , Jacob , P 3rd and Sachs , D P . 1995 . Deficient C-oxidation of nicotine . Clin Pharmacol Ther. , 57 ( 5 ) May : 590 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , C R , Jacob , P 3rd , Wilson , M and Benowitz , N L . 1988 . Changes in rate and pattern of caffeine metabolism after cigarette abstinence . Clin Pharmacol Ther. , 43 ( 5 ) May : 488 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lykkesfeldt , J , Prieme , H , Loft , S and Poulsen , H E . 1996 . Effect of smoking cessation on plasma ascorbic acid concentration . Br Med J. , 313 ( 7049 ) July 13 : 91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward , K D , Garvey , A J and Bliss , R E . 1992 . Evidence of transient heart rate change after smoking cessation . Psychopharmacology (Berl) , 106 ( 3 ) : 337 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lebargy , F , Benhammou , K Morin , D . 1996 . Tobacco smoking induces expression of very-high-affinity nicotine binding sites on blood polymorphonuclear cells . Am J Respir Crit Care Med. , 153 ( 3 ) Mar : 1056 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West , R and Russell , M A . 1988 . Loss of acute nicotine tolerance and severity of cigarette withdrawal . Psychopharmacology (Berl) , 94 ( 4 ) : 563 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilpin , E A , Pierce , J P and Farkas , A J . 1997 . Duration of smoking abstinence and success in quitting . J Natl Cancer Inst. , 89 ( 8 ) April 16 : 572 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ascher , J A , Cole , J O Colin , J N . 1995 . Bupropion: a review of its mechanism of antidepressant activity . J Clin Psychiatry , 56 ( 9 ) : 395 – 401 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar