A Nutrient/Toxin Interaction Theory of the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Chronic Pain-Fatigue Syndromes

References

• Knight AL. Fluorides. In: Zenz C, Dickerson OB, Horvath EP, eds. Occupa-tional Medicine. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1994:496–500.
   Google Scholar
• Howe-Grant M, ed. Fluorine Chemistry: A Comprehensive Treatment. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Underwood EJ. Trace Elements in Human and Animal Nutrition. New York: Academic Press; 1971.
   Google Scholar
• Navia JM, Aponte-Merced L, Punyasingh K. Fluoride Metabolism in Hu-mans. In: Prasad AS, ed. Essential, and Toxic Trace Elements in Human Health and Disease. New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc.; 1988:229–250.
   Google Scholar
• Goyer RA. Toxic and Essential Metal Interactions. Annu Rev Nutr. 1997; 17:37–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emsley J, Jones DJ, Miller JM, et al. An Unexpectedly Strong Hydrogen Bond: Ab Initio Calculations and Spectroscopic Studies of Amide-Fluoride Systems. J Am Chem Soc. 1981;103:24–28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messer HH. Fluorine. In: Frieden E, ed. Biochemistry of the Essential Ultra-trace Elements. New York: Plenum Press;1984:55–87.
   Google Scholar
• Waldbott GL. Fluoride in Clinical Medicine. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1962;20\(suppl 1):1–60.
   Google Scholar
• Galland L. Magnesium, Stress and Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Magnes Trace Elem. 1991-92;10(2–4):287-301.
   Google Scholar
• Galland L. Normocalcemic Tetany and Candidiasis. Magnesium. 1985;4: 339–344.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Durlach J, Bac P, Durlach V, et al. Neurotic, Neuromuscular and Autonomic Nervous Form of Magnesium Imbalance. Magnes Res. June 1997;10(2):169–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox IM, Campbell MJ, Dowson D. Red Blood Cell Magnesium and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Lancet. 1991;337:757–760.
   Google Scholar
• Abraham GE, Flechas JD. Management of Fibromyalgia: Rationale for the Use of Magnesium and Malic Acid. J Nutr Med. 1992;3:49–59.
   Google Scholar
• Russell IJ, Michalek JE, Fletchas JK, Abraham GE. Treatment of Fibromyal-gia Syndrome with Super Malic CD: A Randomized, Double Blind, Placebo Con-trolled, Crossover Pilot Study. J RheumatoL 1995;22(5):953–958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durlach J. Recommended Dietary Amounts of Magnesium: Mg RDA. Magnes Res. September 1989;2(3):195–203.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Research Council Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the RDAs. Recommended Dietary Allowances. 10th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989:187–194.
   Google Scholar
• Abraham GE, Grewal H. A Total Dietary Program Emphasizing Magnesium Instead of Calcium. Effect on the Mineral Density of Calcaneous Bone in Postmeno-pausal Women on Hormonal Therapy. J Reprod Med. May 1990;35(5):503–507.
   Google Scholar
• Seelig MS. Magnesium Requirements in Human Nutrition. Magnes Bull. 1981;1a:26.
   Google Scholar
• Dreosti IE. Trace Elements in Nutrition. Med J Aust. August 9 1980;2:117–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox MRS. Effects of Dietary Mineral Levels on Metabolism and Require-ments. Neurotoxicology. 1983;4(3):113–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marier JR. Comments on Magnesium Intake and Fluoride Intake in the Mod-ern-Day World. Proc Finn Dent Soc. 1980;76:82–92.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burt BA. The Changing Patterns of Systemic Fluoride Intake. J Dent Res. May 1992;71(5):1228–1237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassidy JT. Progress in Diagnosing and Understanding Chronic Pain Syn-dromes in Children. Curr Opin RheumatoL 1994;6(5):544–546.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vercoulen JH, Swanink CM, Fennis JF, et al. Prognosis in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Prospective Study on the Natural Course. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychia-try. May 1996;60(5):489–494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norregaard J, Bulow PM, Prescott E, et al. A Four-Year Follow-Up Study in Fibromyalgia. Relationship to Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Scand J RheumatoL 1993;22(1):35–38.
   Google Scholar
• White KP, Speechly M, Harth M, et al. Fibromyalgia in Rheumatology Prac-tice: A Survey of Canadian Rheumatologists. J RheumatoL April 1995;22(4): 722–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay AM. Myalgic Encephalomyelitis and Postviral Fatigue States: The Saga of Royal Free Disease. 2nd Ed. London: Gower Medical Publishing; 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson H. Osler's Web: Inside the Labyrinth of the Chronic Fatigue Syn-drome Epidemic. New York: Penguin Books; 1996:196–216.
   Google Scholar
• Briggs NC, Levine PH. A Comparative Review of Systemic and Neurological Symptomatology in 12 Outbreaks Collectively Described as Chronic Fatigue Syn-drome, Epidemic Neuromyasthenia, and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18\(suppl 1):532–542.
   Google Scholar
• Hyams KC, Wignall FS, Roswell R. War Syndromes and Their Evaluation: From the U. S. Civil War to the Persian Gulf War. Ann Intern Med. September 1 1996;125(5):398–405.
   Google Scholar
• Clauw DJ, Chrousos GP. Chronic Pain and Fatigue Syndromes: Overlapping Clinical and Neuroendocrine Features and Potential Pathogenic Mechanisms. Neu-roimmunomodulation. May 1997;4(3):134–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchwald D. Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Similarities and Differences. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. May 1996:22(2):219–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell DS, Bell KM, Cheney PR. Primary Juvenile Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in Adolescents. Clin Infect Dis. January 1994;18\(suppl 1): S21–S23.
   Google Scholar
• Levine PH. Epidemic Neuromyasthenia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Epi-demiological Importance of a Cluster Definition. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18\(suppl 1): S16–S20.
   Google Scholar
• Bell DS. The Doctor's Guide to Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Understanding, Treating, and Living with CFIDS. New York: Addison-Wesley; 1995:201–202.
   Google Scholar
• Wallach S. Availability of Body Magnesium During Magnesium Deficiency. Magnesium. 1988;7(5-6):262–270.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aikawa JK. The Role of Magnesium in Cellular Processes. In: Magnesium: Its Biologic Significance. Florida: CRC Press; 1981:21–29.
   Google Scholar
• Aikawa JK. A General Hypothesis Concerning the Biochemical and Cellular Functions of Magnesium. In: The Relationship of Magnesium to Disease in Domestic Animals and in Humans. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1971:3–43.
   Google Scholar
• Whitford GM. The Physiological and Toxicological Characteristics of Fluo-ride. J Dent Res. February 1990;69:539–549.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kusniec F, Fisher G, Sela BA, et al. Magnesium Protects Against Anaphylac-tic Shock and Cardiac Myolysis in Guinea-Pigs. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. Jan 1994;5(1):45–58.
   Google Scholar
• Seelig MS. Consequences of Magnesium Deficiency on the Enhancement of Stress Reactions: Preventive and Therapeutic Implications (a review). J Am Coll Nutr October 1994;13(5):429–446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aikawa JK. Magnesium Deficiency in Man. In: Magnesium: Its Biologic Sig-nificance. Florida: CRC Press; 1981:57–68.
   Google Scholar
• Al Ghamdi SM, Cameron EC, Sutton RA. Magnesium Deficiency: Pathophy-siologic and Clinical Overview. Am J Kidney Dis. November 1994;24(5):737–752.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Langley WF, Mann D. Central Nervous System Magnesium Deficiency. Arch Intern Med. March 1991;151(3):593–596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris ME. Brain and CSF Magnesium Concentrations During Magnesium Deficit in Animals and Humans: Neurological Symptoms. Magnes Res. December 1992;5(4):303–313.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zaloga GP, Chemow B, Pock A, et al. Hypomagnesemia is a Common Com-plication of Aminoglycoside Therapy. Surg Gynecol Obstet. June 1984;158(6): 561–565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaloyanides GJ. Antibiotic-Related Nephrotoxicity. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1994;9\(suppl 4):130–134.
   Google Scholar
• Rylander R. Environmental Magnesium Deficiency as a Cardiovascular Risk Factor. J Cardiovasc Risk February 1996;3(1):4–10.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marier JR. Magnesium Content of the Food Supply in the Modern-Day World. Magnesium. 1986;5(1):1–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Durlach J, Durlach V, Bac P, et al. Magnesium and Ageing. II. Clinical Data: Aetiological Mechanisms and Pathophysiological Consequences of Magnesium Def-icit in the Elderly. Magnes Res. December 1993;6(4):379–394.
   Google Scholar
• Seelig MS. Auto-Immune Complications of D-Penicillamine-A Possible Re-sult of Zinc and Magnesium Depletion and of Pyridoxine Inactivation. J Am Coll Nutr. 1982;1:207–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivlin RS. Magnesium Deficiency and Alcohol Intake: Mechanisms, Clinical Significance and Possible Relation to Cancer Development (a review). J Am Coll Nutr. 1994;13(5):416–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manocha SL, Warner H, Olkowski ZL. Cytochemical Response of Kidney, Liver and Nervous System to Fluoride Ions in Drinking Water. Histochem J. 1975;7:343–355.
   Google Scholar
• McIvor ME. Acute Fluoride Toxicity: Pathophysiology and Management. Drug Saf 1990;5(2):79–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spittle B. Psychopharmacology of Fluoride: A Review. Int Clin Psychophar-macol. 1994;9:79–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grandjean P. Classical Syndromes in Occupational Medicine. Occupational Fluorosis Through 50 Years: Clinical and Epidemiological Experiences. Am J Ind Med. 1982;3: 227–236.
   Google Scholar
• Roholm K. Fluorine Intoxication. A Clinical-Hygienic Study with a Review of the Literature and Some Experimental Investigations. London: H. K. Lewis & Co., Ltd.; 1937.
   Google Scholar
• Shupe JL, Peterson HB, Leone NC, eds. Fluorides: Effects on Vegetation. Ani-mals and Humans. Salt Lake City, UT: Paragon Press; 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Arnbjomsson E, Arnbjomsson A, Olafsson A. Thyroid Cancer Incidence in Relation to Volcanic Activity. Arch Environ Health. January 1986;41(1):36–40.
   Google Scholar
• Guan Z-Z, Zhuang Z, Yang P-S, et al. Synergistic Action of Iodine-Deficiency and Fluorine-Intoxication on Rat Thyroid. Chin Med J. 1988;101(9):679–684.
   Google Scholar
• Kishi K, Ishida T. Clastogenic Activity of Sodium Fluoride in Great Ape Cells. Mutat Res. 1993;301:183–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kharasch ED. Metabolism and Toxicity of the New Anesthetic Agents. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 1996;47(1):7–14.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lochhead KM, Kharasch ED, Zager RA. Spectrum and Subcellular Determi-nants of Fluorinated Anesthetic-Mediated Proximal Tubular Injury. Am J Pathol. June 1997;150(6):2209–2221.
   Google Scholar
• Martin JL, Plevak DJ, Flannery KD, et al. Hepatotoxicity After Desflurane Anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:1125–1129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Research Council Committee on Toxicology. Health Effects of In-gested Fluoride. Washington: National Academy Press; 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Whitford GM, Pashley DH. Fluoride Absorption: The Influence of Gastric Acidity. Calcif Tissue Int. 1984;36:302–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitford GM. The Metabolism and Toxicity of Fluoride. In: Myers HM ed. Monographs in Oral Science. Vol 13. Basel: Karger; 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Spak CJ, Berg U, Ekstrand J. Renal Clearance of Fluoride in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. 1985;75(3):575–579.
   Google Scholar
• Lantz O, Jouvin MH, de Vemejoul MC, et al. Fluoride-Induced Chronic Renal Failure. Am J Kidney Dis. 1987;10(2):136–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond AM, Murray MM. Kidney Function and Structure in Chronic Fluorosis. Br J Exp Pathol. 1952;33(2):168–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Research Council Committee on Animal Nutrition. Mineral Toler-ance of Domestic Animals. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1980:189.
   Google Scholar
• Taves DR. Is Fluoride Intake in the United States Changing? In: Johansen E, Taves DR, Olsen TO, eds. Continuing Evaluation of the Use of Fluorides. Boulder, CO: Westview Press;1979:149–157.
   Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Lin M, He Z, et al. Air Pollution-Type Fluorosis in the Region of Pingxiang, Jiangxi, Peoples' Republic of China. Arch Environ Health. July/August 1993;48(4):246–249.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krishnamachari KAVR. Skeletal Fluorosis in Humans: A Review of Recent Progress in the Understanding of the Disease. Prog Food Nutr Sci. 1986;10:279–314.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Susheela AK, Jethanandani P. Serum Haptoglobin and C-Reactive Protein in Human Skeletal Fluorosis. Clin Biochem. 1994;27(6):463–468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anand JK, Roberts JT. Chronic Fluoride Poisoning in Man: A Review of Lit-erature in English (1946-1989) and Indications for Research. Biomed Pharmacother. 1990;44:417–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Susheela AK, Kharb P. Aortic Calcification in Chronic Fluoride Poisoning: Biochemical and Electronmicroscopic Evidence. Exp Mol Pathol. 1990;53:72–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner SR. Growing Pains. Am Fam Physician. January 1983;27(1):189–191.
   Google Scholar
• Kleerekoper M. Fluoride and the Skeleton. Grit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 1996; 33(2):139–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleerekoper M. Fluoride and the Skeleton. In: Bilezikian JP, Raisz LG, Rodan GA, eds. Principles of Bone Biology. New York: Academic Press;1996:1053–1062.
   Google Scholar
• Grandjean P, Thomsen G. Reversibility of Skeletal Fluorosis. Br J Ind Med. 1983;40:456–461.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Talbot JR, Fischer MM, Farley SM, et al. Gains Made in Spinal Bone Density in Response to Fluoride Therapy for Osteoporosis Are Not Maintained After Fluo-ride Therapy is Discontinued. J Bone Miner Res. 1991;7\(suppl 1):118 (abstract).
   Google Scholar
• Karczmar AG. Brief Presentation of the Story and Present Status of Studies of the Vertebrate Cholinergic System. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1993;9(3):181–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett RM, Cook DM, Clark SR, et al. Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Axis Dysfunction in Patients with Fibromyalgia. J Rheumatol. July 1997;24(7):1384–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demitrack MA. Neuroendocrine Correlates of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Brief Review. J Psychiatr Res. 1997;31(1):69–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Standaert FG. Pharmacology of the Neuromuscular Junction. In: Brumback RA, Gerst JW, eds. The Neuromuscular Junction. Mount Kisco, NY: Futura Publish-ing Co.;1984:121–294.
   Google Scholar
• Callister RJ, Sah P. The Removal of Acetylcholine by Diffusion at Nicotinic Synapses in the Rat Otic Ganglion. J Physio/. 1997;505(1):165–175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crofford LJ, Demitrack MA. Evidence That Abnormalities of Central Neuro-hormonal Systems Are Key to Understanding Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. May 1996;22(2):267–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dryden WF, Singh YN, Gordon T, et al. Pharmacological Elevation of Cyclic AMP and Transmitter Release at the Mouse Neuromuscular Junction. Can .1 Physiol PharmacoL March 1988;66(3):207–212.
   Google Scholar
• Silver A. Some Enzymological Aspects of Acetylcholinesterase. In: The Biol-ogy of Cholinesterases. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co.; 1974:10. Neub-erger A, Tatum EL. eds. Frontiers of Biology; vol. 36.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor P. Anticholinesterase Agents. In: Goodman & Gilman's The Pharma-cological Basis of Therapeutics. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:161.
   Google Scholar
• Hattori T, Maehashi H. Excitation of Skeletal Muscle by Fluoride. In: Tsunoda H, Yu M-H eds. Fluoride Research 1985. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1986:277–284. Studies in Environmental Science; vol. 27.
   Google Scholar
• Beauregard CL, Smith PG. Parasympathetic Excitation of Sympathetic In-nervation After Cholinesterase Inhibition. Br .1 PharmacoL 1996;117:51–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin AE. Fluorides and General Health: Introduction. In: Fluorides and Hu-man Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1970:273.
   Google Scholar
• Selwitz RH. Strategies for Improving Methods of Assessing Fluoride Accu-mulation in Body Fluids and Tissues. Adv Dent Res. June 1994;8(1):111–112.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Research Council Committee on Biologic Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants. Fluorides. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 1971:4.
   Google Scholar
• Shimonovitz S, Patz D, Ever-Hadani P, et al. Umbilical Cord Fluoride Serum Levels May Not Reflect Fetal Fluoride Status. .1 Perinat Med. 1995;23(4):279–282.
   Google Scholar
• Brambilla E, Belluomo G, Malerba A, et al. Oral Administration of Fluoride in Pregnant Women, and the Relation Between Concentration in Maternal Plasma and in Amniotic Fluid. Arch Oral Biol. November 1994;39(11):991–994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar