11
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Immunotherapy of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Therapeutic Interventions Aimed at Modulating the Th1/Th2 Cytokine Expression Balance

, &
Pages 3-37 | Published online: 04 Dec 2011

References

  • Holmes GP, Kaplan JE, Gantz NM, Komaroff AL, Schonberger LB, Straus SE, Jones JF, Dubois RE, Cunningham-Rundles C, Pahwa S, et al. Chronic fatigue syndrome: a working case definition. Annals of Internal Medicine 108(3):387–389, 1988.
  • Klimas NG, Fletcher MA. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Current Opinion in In-fectious Diseases 8:145–148, 1995.
  • Buchwald D, Cheney PR, Peterson DL, Henry B, Wormsley SB, Geiger A, Ablashi DV, Salahuddin SZ, Saxinger C, Biddle R, et al. A chronic illness character-ized by fatigue, neurologic and immunologic disorders and active human herpesvirus 6 type infection. Annals of Internal Medicine 116(2):103–113, 1992.
  • Millon C, Salvato F, Blaney F, Morgan R, Mantero-Atienza E, Klimas NG, Fletcher MA. A psychological assessment of chronic fatigue syndrome/chronic Eps-tein-Barr virus patients. Psychology and Health 3:131–141, 1989.
  • Lutgendorf S, Klimas N, Antoni M, Brickman A, Fletcher MA. Relationships of cognitive difficulties, depression and illness burden in chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 1:23–41, 1995.
  • Fukuda K, Straus SE, Hickie I, Sharpe MC, Dobbins JG, Komaroff A, Interna-tional CFS Study Group. The Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A comprehensive ap-proach to its definition and study. Annals of Internal Medicine 121:953–959, 1994.
  • Patarca R. Concise Encyclopedia of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. The Haworth Press, New York, pp. 1 if, 2000.
  • Klimas NG, Morgan R, Salvato F, van Riel F, Millon C, Fletcher MA. Chronic fatigue syndrome and psychoneuroimmunology. In Stress and Disease Progression: Perspectives in Behavioral Medicine. Schneiderman N, McCabe P, Baum A, eds. Lawrence Erlbaum, Assoc., Hillsdale, NJ, p. 121–137, 1992.
  • Chester AC, Levine PH. Concurrent sick building syndrome and chronic fa-tigue syndrome. Clinical Infectious Diseases 18\(suppl. 1):543–548, 1994.
  • Ablashi DV, Kramarsky B, Bembaum J, Whitman JE, Pearson GR. Viruses and chronic fatigue syndrome: Current status. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 1:3–22, 1995.
  • Cohen S, Tyrrell DA, Smith AP. Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. New England Journal of Medicine 325(9):606–612, 1991.
  • Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. Stress-associated immune modulation: Rele-vance to viral infections and chronic fatigue syndrome. American Journal of Medi-cine 105(3A):355-425, 1998.
  • Glaser R, Rabin B, Chesney M, Cohen S, Natelson B. Stress-associated im-mune modulation: Implications for infectious diseases? Journal of the American Medical Association 281(24):2268–2270, 1999.
  • St George MI Did Cook's sailors have Tapanui flu?-Chronic fatigue syn-drome on the resolution. New Zealand Medical Journal 109(1014):15–17, 1996.
  • Lindal E, Bergmann S, Thorlacius S, Stefansson JG. Anxiety disorders: A re-sult of Long-term chronic fatigue-The psychiatric characteristics of the sufferers of Iceland disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 96(3):158–162, 1997.
  • Fohlman J, Friman G, Tuvemo T. Enterovirus infections in new disguise. La-kartidningen 94(28-29):2555–2560, 1997.
  • Galbraith DN, Nairn C, Clements GB. Evidence for enteroviral persistence in humans. Journal of General Virology 78 (Pt 2):307–312, 1997.
  • Hill WM. Are echoviruses still orphan? British Journal of Biomedical Sciences 53(3):221–226, 1996.
  • Archard LC, Bowles NE, Behan PO, Bell EJ, Doyle D. Post viral fatigue syn-drome: persistence of enterovirus RNA in muscle and elevated creatinine kinase. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 81:326–329, 1988.
  • Miller NA, Carmichael, HA, Hall FC, Calder BD. Antibody to Coxsackie B virus in diagnosing postviral fatigue syndrome. British Medical Journal 302:140–143, 1991.
  • Buchwald D, Ashley RL, Pearlman T, Kith P, Komaroff AL. Viral serologies in patients with chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Medical Virology 50(1):25–30, 1996.
  • Lindh G, Samuelson A, Hedlund KO, Evengard B, Lindquist L, Ehrnst A. No findings of enteroviruses in Swedish patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Scandi-navian Journal of Infectious Diseases 28(3):305–307, 1996.
  • McArdle A, McArdle F, Jackson MJ, Page SF, Fahal I, Edwards RH. Inves-tigation by polymerase chain reaction of enteroviral infection in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Clinical Science 90(4):295–300, 1996.
  • Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. Stress-associated immune modulation: Rele-vance to viral infections and chronic fatigue syndrome. American Journal of Medi-cine 105(3A):355-425, 1998.
  • Jones JF, Ray CG, Minnich LL, Hick MJ, Kibler R, Lucus DO. Evidence for active Epstein-Barr virus infection in patients with persistent unexplained illnesses; elevated anti-early antigen antibodies. Annals of Internal Medicine 102:1–7, 1985.
  • Bellinger WC, Smith TF, Van Scoy RE, Spidzor PG, Forgacs P, Edson RS. Chronic fatigue syndrome and diagnostic utility of antibody to Epstein-Barr virus early antigen. Journal of the American Medical Association 260:971–973, 1988.
  • Bennett BK, Hickie IB, Vollmer-Conna US, Quigley B, Brennan CM, Wake-field D, Douglas MP, Hansen GR, Tahmindjis AJ, Lloyd AR. The relationship be-tween fatigue, psycological and immunological variables in acute infectious illness. Australia & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 32(2):180–186, 1998.
  • White PD, Thomas IM, Amess J, Crawford DH, Grover SA, Kangro HO, Clare AW. Incidence, risk and prognosis of acute and chronic fatigue syndromes and psychiatric disorders after glandular fever. British Journal of Psychiatry 173:475–481, 1998.
  • Schmaling KB, Jones IF. MMPI profiles of patients with chronic fatigue syn-drome. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 40(1):67–74, 1996.
  • Buchwald D, Ashley RL, Pearlman T, Kith P, Komaroff AL. Viral serologies in patients with chronic fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Medical Virology 50(1):25–30, 1996.
  • Braun DK, Dominguez G, Pellett PE. Human herpesvirus 6. Clinical Micro-biology Reviews 10(3):521–567, 1997.
  • Marsh S, Kaplan M, Asano Y, Hoekzema D, Komaroff AL, Whitman JE, Jr., Ablashi DV. Development and application of HHV-6 antigen capture assay for the detection of IIHV-6 infections. Journal of Virological Methods 61(1–2):103-112, 1996.
  • Cuende JI, Civeira P, Diez N, Prieto J. High prevalence without reactivation of herpes virus 6 in subjects with chronic fatigue syndrome. Anales de Medicina Interna 14(9):441–444, 1997.
  • Levy JA, Greenspan D, Ferro F, Lennette ET. Frequent isolation of IIHV-6 from saliva and high seroprevalence of the virus in the population. Lancet 335: 1047–1050, 1990.
  • Ablashi DV, Handy M, Bembaum J, Chatlynne LG, Lapps W, Kramarsky B, Bememan ZN, Komaroff AL, Whitman JE. Propagation and characterization of hu-man herpesvirus-7 (IIHV-7) isolates in a continuous T-lymphoblastoid cell line (SUPT1). Journal of Virological Methods 73(2):123–140, 1998.
  • Martin WJ. Cellular sequences in stealth viruses. Pathobiology 66(2):53–58, 1998.
  • Martin WJ. Detection of RNA sequences in cultures of a stealth virus isolated form the cerebrospinal fluid of a health care worker with chronic fatigue syndrome. Case report. Pathobiology 65(1):57–60, 1997.
  • Martin WJ. Severe stealth virus encephalopathy following chronic-fatigue-syndrome-like illness: Clinical and histopathological features. Pathobiology 64(1):1–8, 1996.
  • Martin WJ. Genetic instability and fragmentation of a stealth viral genome. Pathobiology 64(1):9–17, 1996.
  • Gunn W, Komaroff A, Levine S, Connell D, et al. Multilab retrovirus test re-sults for CFS patients from 3 different geographical areas. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 1 pp., 1997.
  • DeFreitas E, Hilliand B, Cheney P, Bell D, Kiggundu E, Sankey D, Wroblews-ka Z, Palladino M, Woodward JP, Koprowski H. Retroviral sequences related to hu-man T-lymphotropic virus type II in patients with chronic fatigue immune dysfunction syndrome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 88(7):2922–2926, 1991.
  • Holmes MJ, Diack DS, Easingwood A, Cross JP, Carlisle B. Electron micro-scope immunocytological profiles in chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Psychiat-ric Research 31(1):115–122, 1997.
  • Jacobson SK, Daly JS, Thome GM, McIntosh K. Chronic parvovirus B19 in-fection resulting in chronic fatigue syndrome: Case history and review. Clinical In-fectious Diseases 24(6):1048–1051, 1997.
  • Bennett BK, Hickie IB, Vollmer-Conna US, Quigley B, Brennan CM, Wake-field D, Douglas MP, Hansen GR, Tahmindjis AJ, Lloyd AR. The relationship be-tween fatigue, psychological and immunological variables in acute infectious illness. Australia & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 32(2):180–186, 1998.
  • Stitz L, Bilzer T, Tich JA, Rott R. Pathogenesis of Boma disease. Archives of Virology 7:135–151, 1993.
  • Bode L, Fersyt R, Czech G. Boma disease virus infection and affective disor-ders in man. Archives of Virology 7:159–167, 1993.
  • Sauder C, Muller A, Cubitt B, Mayer J, Steimetz J, Trabert W, Ziegler B, Wanke K, Mueller-Lantzsch N, de la Torre JC, Grasser FA. Detection of Boma disease virus (BDV) antibodies and BDV RNA psychiatric patients: evidence of high sequence conservation of human blood-derived RNA. Journal of Virology 70(1):7713–7724, 1996.
  • Salvatore M, Morozunov M, Schnemake M, Lipkin WI and the Bornavirus study group. Boma disease virus in brains of North American and European people with schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. Lancet 349:1813–1814, 1998.
  • Nakaya T, Kuratsune H, Kitani T, Ikuta K. Demonstration on borna disease virus in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Nippon Rinsho-Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine 55(11):3064–3071, 1997.
  • Kitani T, Kuratsune H, Fuke I, Nakamura Y, Nakaya T, Asahi S, Tobiume M, Yamaguti M, Machii T, Inagi R, Yamanishi K, Ikuta K. Possible correlation between borna disease virus infection and Japanese patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Microbiology & Immunology 40(6):459–462, 1996.
  • Nakaya T, Takahashi H, Nakamura Y, Asahi S, Tobiume M, Kuratsune H, Ki-tani T, Yamanishi K, Ikuta K. Demonstration of Boma disease virus RNA in periph-eral blood mononuclear cells derived from Japanese patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. FEBS Letters 378(2):145–149, 1996.
  • Levine S. Borna disease virus proteins in patients with CFS. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 5(3/4):199-206, 1999.
  • Ellenbogen C: Lyme disease. Shift the paradigm. Arch Family Med 6(2):191–195, 1997.
  • Bujak DI, Weinstein A, Dornbush RL. Lyme disease. Clinical and neurocog-nitive features of the post Lyme syndrome. Journal of Rheumatology 23(8):1392–1397, 1996.
  • Ravdin LD, Hilton E, Primeau M, Clements C, Ban- WB. Memory functioning in Lyme borreliosis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 57(7):282–286, 1996.
  • Diamantis I. A case from practice (343). Chronic fatigue syndrome following Lyme borreliosis. Schweizerische Rundschau fur Medizin Praxis 1996; 85(9):287–288, 1996.
  • Gaudino EA, Coyle PK, Krupp LB. Post-Lyme syndrome and chronic fatigue syndrome. Neuropsychiatric similarities and differences. Arch Neurol 54(11):1372–1376, 1997.
  • Bottero P. Role of rickettsiae and chlamydiae in the psychopathology of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients: A diagnostic and therapeutic report. Jour-nal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 6(3/4):147-161, 2000.
  • Choppa PC, Vojdani A, Tagle C, Andrin R, Magtoto L. Multiplex PCR for the detection of Mycoplasma fermentans, M hominis and M penetrans in cell culturesand blood samples of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Molecular & Cellular Probes 12(5):301–308, 1998.
  • Nicolson GL, Nasralla M, Haier J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of mycoplas-mal infections in fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndromes: Relationship to Gulf War Illness. Biomedical Therapy 16:266–271, 1998.
  • Vojdani A, Choppa PC, Tagle C, Andrin R, Samimi B, Lapp CW. Detection of Mycoplasma genus and Mycoplasma fermentans by PCR in patients with chronic fa-tigue syndrome. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology 22:355–365, 1998.
  • Vojdani A, Franco AR. Multiplex PCR for the detection of Mycoplasma fer-mentans, M hominis and M penetrans in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, rheumatoid arthritis and Gulf War illness. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 5:187–197, 1999.
  • Nicolson GL, Nasralla MY, Franco AR, De Meierleir K, Nicolson NL, Ngwe-nya R, Haier J. Role of mycoplasmal infections in fatigue illnesses: Chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia syndromes, Gulf War illness, and rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 6(3/4):23-39, 2000.
  • Jadin CL. Common clinical and biological windows on CFS and rickettsia' diseases. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 6(3/4):133-145, 2000.
  • Jadin JG. Au sujet des maladies Rickettsiennes. Annale de la Societe Belge de Medécine Tropicale 3:321, 1962.
  • Jadin CL. The Rickettsia' approach of CFS. CFS Manly Conference, Austra-lia, February 1999.
  • Mauff G, Gon M. CFS in incline village. Southern Association Medical Jour-nal, March 1991.
  • Jadin JB. Origine des maladies Rickettsiennes. Annale de la Societe Belge de Medécine Tropicale 3:pp. 1 if, 1953.
  • Hennessy T. CFS: May 12: F. Nightingale's birthday: A comprehensive ap-proach. Annales Internationales de Medécine 121:953-959, 1994.
  • Woldehiwe T. Lymphomatic subpopulations in peripheral blood of sheep ex-perimentally infected with tick-borne disease. Research Veterinary Scientist, July 1, 1991.
  • Drancourt M, Levy MG. Rickettsial Infection. 8th Congress of the American Rickettsial Society 1990.
  • Marmion BP, Shannon M, et al. Post Q fever syndrome. Lancet 347:977–978, 1996.
  • Ayres JG, Flint N, Smith EG, Tunnicliffe WS, Fletcher TJ, Hammond K, Ward D, Marmion BP. Post-infection fatigue syndrome following Q fever. Quarterly Journal of Medicine 91(2):105–123, 1998.
  • Bennett BK, Hickie IB, Vollmer-Conna US, Quigley B, Brennan CM, Wake-field D, Douglas MP, Hansen GR, Tahmindjis AJ, Lloyd AR. The relationship be-tween fatigue, psychological and immunological variables in acute infectious illness. Australia & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 32(2):180–186, 1998.
  • Penttila IA, Harris RJ, Storm P, Haynes D, Worswick DA, Marmion BP. Cyto-kine dysregulation in the post-Q-fever fatigue syndrome. QJM 91(8):549–560, 1998.
  • Tarbleton P. To whom it may concern. Affidavit to the SA Medical Council, January 1995.
  • Jadin CL. The Rickettsia' approach of CFS. The Clinical and Scientific Basis of CFS. 1K Roberts, ed. University of Newcastle, Australia 200–213, 1998.
  • Swanink CM, Stolk-Engelaar VM, van der Meer JW, Vercoulen JI-1, Bleijen-berg G, Fennis, JM, Galama JM, Hoogkamp-Korstanje JA. Yersinia enterocolitica and the chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Infection 36(3):269–272, 1998.
  • Talal N, Dauphinée MJ, Dang H, Alexander SS, Hart DJ, Garry RF. Detection of serum antibodies to retroviral proteins in patients with primary Sjögren's syn-drome (autoimmune exocrinopathy). Arthritis and Rheumatism 33(6):774–781, 1990.
  • Talal N, Garry RF, Schur PH, Alexander S, Dauphinee MJ, Livas IH, Ballester A, Takei M, Dang H. A conserved idiotype and antibodies to retroviral proteins in systemic lupus erythematosus. Journal of Clinical Investigation 85(6):1866–1887, 1990.
  • Pen l A, Gorevic PD, Condemi JJ, Papsidero L, Poiesz BJ, Abraham GN. Anti-bodies to retroviral proteins and reverse transcriptase activity in patients with essen-tial cryoglobulinemia. Arthritis and Rheumatism 34(10):313–318, 1991.
  • Dang H, Dauphinée MJ, Talal N, Garry RF, Seibold JR, Medsger TA, Jr, Alex-ander S, Feghali CA. Serum antibody to retroviral gag proteins in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 34(10):1336–1337, 1991.
  • Garry RF, Fermin CD, Hart DJ, Alexander SS, Donehower LA, Luo-Zhang H. Detection of a human intracistemal A-type retroviral particle antigenically related to HIV. Science 250(4894):1127–1129, 1990.
  • Banki K, Maceda J, Hurley E, Ablonczy E, Mattson DH, Szegedy L, Hung C, Perl A. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-related endogenous sequence, HRES-1, encodes a 28-kDa protein: A possible autoantigen for HTLV-I gag reactive autoantibodies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 89(5):1939–1943, 1992.
  • Blick M, Bresser J, Lepe-Zuniga IL, Goodacre A, Luethke D, Holder WR, Duvic M. Identification of human immunodeficiency virus hybridizing sequences in the peripheral blood of a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 23(4Pt1):641-645, 1990.
  • Ciampolillo A, Marini V, Mirakian R, Buscema M, Schulz T, Pujol-Borrel R, Bottazzo GF. Retrovirus-like sequences in Graves disease: Implications for human autoimmunity. Lancet 1(8647):1096–110, 1989.
  • Lagaye S, Vexiau P. Morozov V, Guenebaut-Claudet V, Tobaly-Tapiero J, Ca-nivet M, Cathelineau G, Peries J, Emanoil-Ravier R. Human spumaretrovirus-related sequences in the DNA of leukocytes from patients with Graves disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 89(21):10070–10074, 1992.
  • Silvestris F, Williams RC, Dammacco F. Autoreactivity in HIV-1 infection: The role of molecular mimicry. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 75: 197–205, 1995.
  • Atkinson MA, Bowman MA, Campbell L, Darrow BL, Kaufman DL, Macla-ren NK. Cellular immunity to a determinant common in glutamate decarboxylase and coxsackievirus in insulin-dependent diabetes. Journal of Clinical Investigation 94(5):2125–2129, 1994.
  • Tian J, Lehmann PV, Kaufman DL. T cell cross-reactivity between coxsackie-virus and glutamate decarboxylase is associated with a murine diabetes susceptibility allele. Journal of Experimental Medicine 180:1979–1984, 1994.
  • Jones DB, Armstrong NW. Coxsackievirus and diabetes revisited. Nature Medicine 1:284, 1995.
  • Trujillo JR, McLane MF, Lee T-H, Essex M. Molecular mimicry between the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 V3 loop and human brain proteins. Journal of Virology 67:7711–7715, 1993.
  • Gama Sosa MA, De Gasperi R, Patarca R, Fletcher MA, Kolodny EH. Anti-sulfatide IgG antibodies recognize HIV proteins. Journal of Acquired Immune Defi-ciency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 15:83–90, 1997.
  • Konstantinov K, von Mikecz A, Buchwald D, Jones J, Gerace L, Tan EM. Au-toantibodies to nuclear antigens in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Clin Invest 98(8): 1888–1896, 1996.
  • Poteliakhoff A. Fatigue syndromes and the aetiology of autoimmune disease. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 4(4):31–50 1998.
  • von Mikecz A, Konstantinov K, Buchwald DS, Gerace L, Tan EM. High fre-quency of autoantibodies in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Arthritis & Rheumatism 40(2):295–305, 1997.
  • Keller RU, Lane JL, Klimas N, Reiter WM, Fletcher MA, van Riel F, Morgan R. Association between HILA class II antigens and the chronic fatigue immune dys-function syndrome. Clinical Infectious Diseases 18(Suppl 1): S154–S156, 1994.
  • Jones J. Serologic and immunologic responses in chronic fatigue syndrome with emphasis on the Epstein-Ban virus. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 13(1):526–531, 1991.
  • Jones JF, Straus SE. Chronic Epstein-Ban- virus infection. Annual Reviews of Medicine 38:195–209, 1987.
  • Jones IF, Ray G, Minnich LL, Hicks ME Kibler R, Lucas DO. Evidence for active Epstein-Ban- virus infection in patients with persistent, unexplained illnesses: Elevated anti-early antigen antibodies. Annals of Internal Medicine 102(1):1–7, 1985.
  • Kaslow JE, Rucker L, Onishi R. Liver extract-folic acid-cyanocobalamin vs. placebo for chronic fatigue syndrome. Archives of Internal Medicine 149:2501–2503, 1989.
  • Prieto J, Subira MIL, Castilla A, Serrano M. Naloxone-reversible monocyte dysfunction in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Im-munology 30(1):13–20, 1989.
  • Salit IE. Sporadic postinfectious neuromyasthenia. Canadian Medical Associ-ation Journal 133:659–663, 1985.
  • Straus SE, Tosato G, Armstrong G, Lawley T, Preble OT, Henle W, Davey R, Pearson G, Epstein J, Brus I, et al. Persisting illness and fatigue in adults with evi-dence of Epstein-Ban virus infection. Annals of Internal Medicine 102(1):7–16, 1985.
  • Tobi M, Morag A, Ravid Z, Chowers I, Feldman-Weiss V, Michaeli Y, Ben-Chetrit E, Shalit M, Knobler H. Prolonged atypical illness associated with serological evidence of persistent Epstein-Ban- infection. Lancet 1(8263):61–64, 1982.
  • Bates DW, Buchwald D, Lee J, Kith P, Doolittle T, Rutherford C, Churchill WH, Schur PH, Werner M, Wybenga D, et al. Clinical laboratory test findings in pa-tients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Archives of Internal Medicine 155(1):97–103, 1995.
  • Gold D, Bowden R, Sixbey J, Riggs R, Katon WJ, Ashley R, Obrigewitch RM, Corey L. Chronic fatigue. A prospective clinical and virologic study. Journal of the American Medical Association 264(1):48–53, 1990.
  • Behan PO, Behan WHM, Bell EJ. The postviral fatigue syndrome-An analy-sis of the findings in 50 cases. Journal of Infectious Diseases 10:211-222, 1985.
  • Weinstein L. Thyroiditis and "chronic infectious mononucleosis." New En-gland Journal of Medicine 317:1225–1226, 1987.
  • Plioplys AV. Antimuscle and anti-CNS circulating antibodies in chronic fa-tigue syndrome. Neurology 48(6):1717–1719, 1997.
  • Rasmussen AK, Nielsen AH, Andersen V. Barington T, Bendtzen K, Hansen MB, Nielsen L, Pederson BK, Wiik A. Chronic fatigue syndrome-A controlled cross sectional study. Journal of Rheumatology 21(8):1527–1531, 1994.
  • Itoh Y, Hamada H, Imai T, Saki T, Igarashi T, Yuge K, Fukunaga Y, Yamamoto M. Antinuclear antibodies in children with chronic nonspecific complaints. Autoim-munity 25(4):243–250, 1997.
  • Fiore G, Giacovazzo F, Giacovazzo M. Three cases of dermatomyositis erro-neously diagnosed as "chronic fatigue syndrome." European Reviews of Medical & Pharmacological Sciences 1(6):193–195, 1997.
  • Nishikai M, Akiya K, Tojo T, Onoda N, Tani M, Shimizu K. "Seronegative" Sjoegren's syndrome manifested as a subset of chronic fatigue syndrome. British Journal of Rheumatology 35(5):471–474, 1996.
  • Barendregt PJ, Visser MR, Smets EM, Tulen RI, van den Meiracker AH, Boomsma F, Markusse HM. Fatigue in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Annals of Rheu-matic Diseases 57(5):291–295, 1998.
  • Asim M, Tumey J1-1. The female patient with faints and fatigue: Don't forget Sjogren's syndrome. Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation 12(7):1516–1517, 1997.
  • Wang B, Gladman DD, Urowitz MB. Fatigue in lupus is not correlated with disease activity. Journal of Rheumatology 25(5):892–895, 1998.
  • Jones SD, Koh WH, Steiner A, Garrett SL, CalM A. Fatigue in ankylosing spondylitis: Its prevalence and relationship to disease activity, sleep, and other fac-tors. Journal of Rheumatology 23(3):487–490, 1996.
  • Wolfe F, Hawley DJ, Wilson K. The prevalence and meaning of fatigue in rheumatic disease. Journal of Rheumatology 23(8):1407–1417, 1996.
  • Huyser BA, Parker JC, Thoreson R, Smarr KL, Johnson JC, Hoffman R. Pre-dictors of subjective fatigue among individuals with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis & Rheumatism 41(12):2230–2237, 1998.
  • Riemsma RP, Rasker JJ, Taal E, Griep EN, Wouters JM, Wiegman O. Fatigue in rheumatoid arthritis: The role of self-efficacy and problematic social support. Brit-ish Journal of Rheumatology 37(10):1042–1046, 1998.
  • Stone AA, Broderick JE, Porter LS, Kaell AT. The experience of rheumatoid arthritis pain and fatigue: Examining momentary reports and correlates over one week. Arthritis Care & Research 10(3):185–193, 1997.
  • Shaheen SO, Aaby P, Hall AJ, Barker DJ, Heyes CB, Shiell AW, Goudiaby A. Measles and atopy in Guinea-Bissau. Lancet 347:1792–1796, 1996.
  • Aaby P. Assumptions and contradictions in measles and measles immuniza-tion research: Is meales good for something? Social Sciences Medicine 41(5):673–686, 1995.
  • Aaby P. Samb B, Simondon F, Seek AM, Knudsen K, Whittle H. Non-specific beneficial effect of measles immunisation: analysis of mortality studies from devel-oping countries. British Medical Journal 311(7003):481–485, 1995.
  • Mu HH, Sewell WA. Enhancement of interleukin-4 production by pertussis toxin. Infection and Immunity 61(7):3190–3198, 1993.
  • Ramiya VK, Shang XZ, Pharis PG, Wasserfall CH, Stabler TV, Muir AB, Schatz DA, Maclaren NK. Antigen based therapies to prevent diabetes in NOD mice. Journal of Autoimmunity 9:349–356, 1996.
  • Smit JA, Stark J11, Myburgh JA. Induction of primate TH2 lymphokines to suppress TH1 cells. Transplantation Proceedings 28(2):665–666, 1996.
  • Nilsson L, Kjellman NI, Storsaeter J, Gustafsson L, Olin P. Lack of associa-tion between pertussis vaccine and symptoms of asthma and allergy. Journal of the American Medical Association 275(10):760, 1996.
  • Odent MR, Culpin EE, Kimmel T. Pertussis vaccination and asthma: Is there a link? Journal of the American Medical Association 272(8):592–593, 1994.
  • Bretscher PA, Wei G, Menon JN, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H. Establishment of stable, cell-mediated immunity that makes "susceptible" mice resistant to Leishma-nia major. Science 257(5069):539–542, 1992.
  • Hernandez-Pando R, Rook GA. The role of TNF-alpha in T-cell mediated in-flammation depends on the Thl /Th2 cytokine balance. Immunology 82(4):591–595, 1994.
  • Bernton E, Hoover D, Galloway R, Popp K. Adaptation to chronic stress in military trainees. Adrenal androgens, testosterone, glucocorticoids, IGF-1, and im-mune function. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 774:217-231, 1995.
  • Brinkmann V. Kristofic C. Regulation of corticosteroids of Thl and Th2 cyto-kine production in human CD4+ effector T cells generated from CD45R0111 and CD45R0+ subsets. Journal of Immunology 155(7):3322–3328, 1995.
  • Zwilling BS, Brown D, Pearl D. Induction of major histocompatibility com-plex class II glycoproteins by interferon gamma: Attenation of the effects of restraint stress. Journal of Immunology 37(1-2):115–122, 1992.
  • Shanks N, Francis D, Zalcman S, Meaney MJ, Anisman H. Alterations in cen-tral cathecolamines associated with immune responses in adult and aged mice. Brain Research 666(1):77–87, 1994.
  • Besedovsky H, del Rey A, Sorkien E, Da Prada M, Bum R, Honegger C. The immune response evokes changes in brain noradrenergic neurons. Science 221(4610): 564–566, 1983.
  • Vasina IG, Frolov EP, Serebriakov NG. Sympathico-adrenal system activity in a primary immune response. Zhurnal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii i Imunobiologii 10(9):88–92, 1975.
  • Boranic M. The central nervous system and immunity. Lijecnicki Vjesnik 112(9-10):329–334, 1990.
  • Boranic M, Pericic D, Radacic M, Poljak-Blasi M, Sverko V, Miljenovic G. Immunological and neuroendocrine responses of rats to prolonged or repeated stress. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 36(1):23–28, 1982.
  • Basso AM, Depiante-Depaoli M, Molina VA. Chronic variable stress facili-tates tumoral growth: reversal by imipramine administration. Life Sciences 50(23): 1789–1796, 1992.
  • Foley FW, Traugott U, LaRocca NG, Smith CR, Perlman KR, Caruso LS, Scheinberg LC. A prospective study of depression and immune dysregulation in mul-tiple sclerosis. Archives of Neurology 49(3):238–244, 1992.
  • De Souza EB. Corticotropin-releasing factor and interleukin-1 receptors in the brain-endocrine-immune axis. Role in stress response and infection. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 697:9-27, 1993.
  • Irwin M. Stress-induced immune suppression. Role of the autonomic nervous system. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 697:203–218, 1993.
  • Weiss JM, Quan N, Sundar SK. Widespread activation and consequences of interleukin-1 in the brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 741:338-357, 1994.
  • Hebert TB, Cohen S. Depression and immunity: A meta-analytic review. Psychology Bulletin 113:472–486, 1993.
  • Irwin M, Patterson T, Smith TL, Caldwell C, Brown SA, Gillin JC, Grant I. Reduction of immune function in life stress and depression. Biological Psychiatry 27:222–230, 1990.
  • Irwin M, Caldwell C, Smith TL, Brown S, Schuckit MA, Gillin C. Major depressive disorder, alcoholism, and reduced natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Archives of General Psychiatry 47:713–719, 1990.
  • Schleifer SJ, Keller SE, Bond RN, Cohen J, Stein M. Major depressive disor-der: Role of age, sex, severity and hospitalization. Archives of General Psychiatry 46:81–87, 1989.
  • Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Acosta E, Gomez F, Lechin E, Arocha L. Distal colon motility and clinical parameters in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 5:19–26, 1983.
  • Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Gomez F, Arocha L, Acosta E, Lechin E. Distal colon motility as a predictor of antidepressant response to fenfluramine, imipramine and clomipramine. Journal of Affective Disorders 5:27–35, 1983.
  • Daynes RA, Araneo BA, Ershler WB, Maloney C, Li GZ, Ryu SY. Altered regulation of IL-6 production with normal aging. Possible linkage to the age-associ-ated decline in dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfated derivative. Journal of Im-munology150(12):5219–5230, 1993.
  • Garg M, Bondade S. Reversal of age-associated decline in immune response to Pnu-immune vaccine by supplementation with the steroid hormone dehydroepian-drosterone. Infection and Immunity 61(5):2238–2241, 1993.
  • Morales AJ, Nolan JJ, Nelson JC, Yen SS. Effects of replacement dose of de-hydroepiandrosterone in men and women of advancing age. Journal of Clinical En-docrinology and Metabolism 78(6):1360–1367, 1994.
  • Daynes RA, Araneo BA. Contrasting effects of glucocorticoids on the capac-ity of T cells to produce the growth factors interleukin 2 and interleukin 4. European Journal of Immunology 19(12):2319–2325, 1989.
  • Daynes RA, Araneo BA, Dowell TA, Huang K, Dudley D. Regulation of mu-rine lymphokine production in vivo. III. The lymphoid tissue microenvironment ex-erts regulatory influences over T helper cell function. Journal of Experimental Medi-cine 171(4):979–996, 1990.
  • Daynes RA, Araneo BA, Hennebold J, Enioutina E, Mu flu. Steroids as regu-lators of the mammalian immune response. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 105:14S-19S, 1995.
  • Daynes RA, Meikle AW, Araneo BA. Locally active steroid hormones may facilitate compartmentalization of immunity by regulating the types of lymphokines produced by helper T cells. Research in Immunology 142(1):40–45, 1991.
  • Suzuki T, Suzuki N, Daynes RA, Engleman EG. Dehydroepiandrosterone en-hances IL2 production and cytotoxic effector function of human T cells. Clinical Im-munology and Immunopathology 61(2):202–211, 1991.
  • Fischer A, Konig W. Influence of cytokines and cellular interactions on the glucocorticoid-induced Ig (E, G, A, M) synthesis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Immunology 74(2):228–233, 1991.
  • Guida L, O'Hehir RE, Hawrylowicz CM. Synergy between dexamethasone and interleukin-5 for the induction of major histocompatibility complex class II ex-pression by human peripheral blood eosinophils. Blood 84(8):2733–2740, 1994.
  • Padgett DA, Sheridan JF, Loria RM. Steroid hormone regulation of a polyclo-nal TH2 immune response. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 774:323-325, 1995.
  • Wu CY, Sarfati M, Heusser C, Fournier S, Rubio-Trujillo M, Peleman R, Delespesse G. Glucocorticoids increase the synthesis of immunoglobulin E by inter-leukin 4-stimulated human lymphocytes. Journal of Clinical Investigation 87(3): 870–877, 1991.
  • Corrigan CJ, Hamid Q, North J, Barkans J, Moqbel R, Durham S, Gemou-En-gesaeth V, Kay AB. Peripheral blood CD4 but not CD8 T-lymphocytes in patients with exacerbation of asthma transcribe and translate messenger RNA encoding cyto-kines which prolong eosinophil survival in the context of a Th2-type pattern: Effect of glucocorticoid therapy. American Journal of Respiratory Cellular and Molecular Biology 12(5):567–578, 1995.
  • Gloger S, Puente J, Arias P, Fischman P. Caldumbide I, Gonzalez R, Quiroz J, Echavarri O, Ramirez C. Immune response reduced by intense intellectual stress: Change in lymphocyte proliferation in medical students. Revista Medice Clitene 125(6):665–670, 1997.
  • Glaser R, Lafuse WP, Bonneau RH, Atkinson C, Kiecolt-Glaser IX. Stress-as-sociated modulation of proto-oncogene expression in human peripheral blood leuko-cytes. Behavioral Neurosciences 107(3):525–529, 1993.
  • Brown DH, Sheridan J, Pearl D, Zwilling BS. Regulation of mycobacterial growth by the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis: differential responses of Myco-bacterium bovis-BCG-resistant and -susceptible mice. Infection and Immunity 61(11): 4793–4800, 1993.
  • Tobach et al. American Journal of Physiology 187:399-402, 1956.
  • Rook GA, Hernandez-Pando R. The pathogenesis of tuberculosis. Annual Re-views of Microbiology 50:259–284, 1996.
  • Rook GA, Stanford JL. The Koch phenomenon and the immunopathology of tuberculosis. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 215:239–262, 1996.
  • Raven PW, Checkley SA, Taylor NE Extra-adrenal effects of metyrapone in-clude inhibition of the 11-oxoreductase activity of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydro-genase: A model for 11-HSD I deficiency. Clinical Endocrinology 43(5):637–644, 1995.
  • Raven PW, O'Dwyer AM, Taylor NF, Checkley SA. The relationship between the effects of metyrapone treatment on depressed mood and urinary steroid profiles. Psychoneuroendocrinology 21(3):277–286, 1996.
  • Holsboer F, Von Bardeleben U, Gerken A, Stalla GK, Muller OA. Blunted corticotropin and normal cortisol response to human corticotropin-releasing factor in depression. New England Journal of Medicine 311(17):1127–1135, 1984.
  • Rupprecht R, Hauser CA, Trapp TA, Holsboer F. Neurosteroids: molecular mechanisms of action and psychopharmacological significance. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 56(1-6):163–168, 1996.
  • Casale GP, Vennerstrom IL, Bavari S, Wang TL. Inhibition of interleukin 2 driven proliferation of mouse CTLL2 cells, by selected carbamate and organophos-phate insecticides and congeners of carbaryl. Immunopharmacology and Immunotox-icology 15(2–3):199-215, 1993.
  • Marwick C. International plan focuses on eradication of polio and contain-ment of the virus. Journal of the American Medical Association 283(12):1553–1554, 2000.
  • Klimas NG, Fletcher MA. Alteration of type 1/type 2 cytokine pattern follow-ing adoptive immunotherapy of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) using autologous ex vivo expanded lymph node cells. Abstract, II International Conf CFS, Brussels, 1999.
  • Klimas NG. Clinical impact of adoptive therapy with purified CD8 cells in HIV infection. Seminars in Hematology 29:40–43, 1992.
  • Klimas NG, Fletcher MA, Walling J, Garcia-Morales R, Patarca R, Moody D, °karma T. Ex vivo CD8 lymphocyte activation, expansion, and reinfusion into donors with rIL-2-a phase I study. In: Septieme Colloque des Cent Gardes: Retroviruses of Human AIDS, and Related Animal Disease, M Girard and L Valette, Eds., 285–290, 1993.
  • Klimas NG, Patarca R, Walling J, Garcia R, Mayer V, Albarracin C, Moody D, °karma T, Fletcher MA. Changes in the clinical and immunological stati of AIDS patients upon adoptive therapy with activated autologous CD8+ T cells and interleu-kin-2 infusion. Journal of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndromes 8:1073–1081, 1994.
  • Klimas NG, Patarca R, Maher K, Smith M, Jin X-Q, Huang H-S, Walling J, Gamber C, Fletcher MA. Immunomodulation with autologous, ex vivo manipulated cytotoxic T lymphocytes in HIV-1 disease. Clinical Immunology Newsletter 14:101-105, 1994.
  • Patarca R, Klimas NG, Walling J, Mayer V, Baum M, Yue X-S, Garcia MN, Pons H, Sandler D, Friedlander A, Page B, Lai S, Fletcher MA. CD8 T-cell immuno-therapy in A1DFS: Rationale and lessons learned at the cellular and molecular biolo-gy levels. Clinical Immunology Newsletter 14:105-111, 1994.
  • Patarca R, Klimas NG, Walling J, Sandler D, Friedlander A, Jin X-Q, Garcia MN, Fletcher MA. Adoptive CD8 + T-cell immunotherapy of AIDS patients with Kaposi's sarcoma. Critical Reviews in Oncogenesis 6(3–6):179-234, 1995.
  • See DM, Broumand N, Sahl L, Tilles TG. In vitro effects of echinacea and ginseng on natural killer and antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity in healthy subjects and chronic fatigue syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients. Im-munopharmacology 35(3):229–235, 1997.
  • Song Z, Kharazmi A, Wu H, Faber V, Moser C, Krogh HK, Rygaard J, Hoiby N. Effects of ginseng treatment on neutrophil chemiluminescence and immunoglobu-lin G subclasses in a rat model of chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia. Clinical Diagnostics & Laboratory Immunology 5(6):882–887, 1998.
  • Cupp MJ. Herbal remedies: Adverse effects and drug interactions. American Family Physician 59(5):1239–1245, 1999.
  • Miller LG. Herbal medicinals: Selected clinical considerations focusing on known or potential drug-herb interactions. Archives of Internal Medicine 158(20): 2200–2211, 1998.
  • McRae S. Elevated serum digoxin levels in a patient taking digoxin and Siber-ian ginseng. CMAJ155(3):293–295, comment 115(9):1237, 1996.
  • Awang DVC. Siberian ginseng toxicity may be case of mistaken identity. CMAJ 155:1237, 1996.
  • Wong HCG. Probable false authentication of herbal plants: Ginseng. Archives of Internal Medicine 159:1142, 1999.
  • Lijima H, Sun S, Cyong JC, Jyonouchi H. Juzen-taiho-to, a Japanese herbal medicine, modulates type 1 and type 2 T-cell responses in old BALB/c mice. Ameri-can Journal of Chinese Medicine 27(2):191–203, 1999.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.