1,198
Views
31
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Violent Death

Understanding the Context of Traumatic and Stigmatized Grief

Pages 53-90 | Published online: 24 Sep 2008

References

  • American Association of Suicidology . 2004 . Some facts about suicide in the USA: Facts based on current statistics Retrieved May 8, 2004 from http://www.suicidology.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=4
  • Amick-McMullan , A. , Kilpatrick , D. G. and Resnick , H. S. 1991 . Homicide as a risk factor for PTSD among surviving family members . Behavior Modification , 15 : 545 – 559 .
  • Amick-McMullen , A. , Kilpatrick , D. , Veronen , L. J. and Smith , S. 1989 . Family survivors of homicide victims: Theoretical perspectives and an exploratory study . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 2 : 21 – 33 .
  • Anderson , R. N. and Smith , B. L. 2003 . Deaths: Leading causes for 2001 , Hyattsville, MD : National Center for Health Statistics . National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(9), Tables 1 and 2
  • Arias , E. , Anderson , R. N. , Kung , H. C. , Murphy , S. L. and Kochanek , K. D. 2003 . Deaths: Final data for 2001 . National Vital Statistics Report , 52 ( 3 ) : 8 No. 3. Table C
  • Armour , M. P. 2004 . When a family member is murdered , Edited by: Catherall , D. Brunner-Routledge .
  • Armour , M. P. 2003 . Making meaning in the aftermath of homicide . Death Studies , 27 : 519 – 540 .
  • Armour , M. 2002a . Experiences of covictims of homicide: Implications for research and practice . Trauma, Violence & Abuse , 3 : 109 – 124 .
  • Armour , M. P. 2002b . The journey of homicide families: A qualitative study of their post homicide experience . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 72 : 372 – 382 .
  • Attig , T. 1996 . How we grieve: Relearning the world , New York : Oxford .
  • Awoonor-Renner , S. 1993 . I desperately needed to see my son . British Medical Journal , 302 : 356
  • Baker , S. P. , Braver , E. R. , Chen , L. , Pantula , J. F. and Massie , D. 1998 . Motor vehicle occupant deaths among Hispanic and Black children and teenagers . Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine , 152 : 1209 – 1212 .
  • Bard , M. , Arnone , H. C. and Nemiroff , D. 1986a . “ Contextual influences of the post-traumatic stress adaptation of homicide survivor-victims ” . In Trauma and its wake Volume II: Traumatic stress theory, research and intervention , Edited by: Figley , C. R. 292 – 304 . New York : Brunner/Mazel .
  • Bartucci , M. 1987 . Organ donation: A study of the donor family perspective . Journal of Neuroscience Nursing , 19 : 305 – 309 .
  • Best , B. 1994 . Causes of death Retrieved May 8, 2004, from http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/causes.html?source=DeathClock
  • Bierhals , A. J. , Prigerson , H. G. , Fasiczka , A. , Frank , E. and Miller , M. 1996 . Gender differences in complicated grief among the elderly . Omega , 32 : 303 – 317 .
  • Blanchard , E. B. 1999 . The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science .
  • Brewin , C. R. and Homes , E. A. 2003 . Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder . Clinical Psychology Review , 23 : 339 – 376 .
  • Brown , L. , ed. 1993 . The new shorter Oxford English dictionary , Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
  • Buksbazen , C. 1976 . Legacy of a suicide . Suicide and life-threatening behavior , 47 : 106 – 122 .
  • Calhoun , L. G. , Selby , J. W. and Faulstich , M. E. 1980 . Reactions to the parents of the child suicide: A study of social impressions . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 48 : 535 – 536 .
  • Calhoun , L. G. , Selby , J. W. and Steelman , J. 1983 . Individual and social elements in acute grief: A collation of funeral director's impressions of suicidal deaths , Charlotte : University of North Carolina . Unpublished manuscript
  • Cerei , J. , Fristad , M. A. , Weller , E. B. and Weller , R. A. 2000 . Suicide-bereaved children and adolescents: II. Parental and family functioning . Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 39 : 437 – 444 .
  • Cleiren , M. 1993 . Bereavement and adaptation: A comparative study of the aftermath of death , Washington, DC : Hemisphere .
  • Constantino , R. E. , Faan , L. K. S. and Rubinstein , E. N. 2001 . Group intervention for widowed survivors of suicide . Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior , 31 : 428 – 441 .
  • DannemillerChristine , Dannemiller H. 2002 . The parent's response to a child's murder . Omega , 45 : 1 – 21 .
  • Davis , C. G. , Wortman , C. B. , Lehman , D. R. and Silver , R. C. 2000 . Searching for meaning in loss: Are clinical assumptions correct? . Death Studies , 24 : 497 – 540 .
  • Dunn , R. G. and Morrish-Vidners , D. 1987 . The psychological and social experience of suicide survivors . Omega , 18 : 175 – 215 .
  • Dunne-Maxim , K. 1987 . “ Survivors and the media; Pitfalls and potential ” . In Suicide and its aftermath: Understanding and counseling the survivors , Edited by: Dunne , E. J. , McIntosh , J. L. and Dunne-Maxim , K. New York : W. W. Norton & Company .
  • Dyregrov , K. 2002 . Assistance from local authorities versus survivors' needs for support after suicide . Death Studies , 26 : 647 – 668 .
  • Ehlers , A. and Clark , D. 2003 . Early psychological interventions for adult survivors of trauma: A review . Biological Psychiatry , 53 : 817 – 826 .
  • Ellenbogen , S. and Gratton , F. 2001 . Do they suffer more? Reflections on research comparing suicide survivors to other survivors . Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior , 31 : 83 – 90 .
  • Ender , M. G. and Hermsen , J. M. 1996 . Working with the bereaved: U. S. Army experiences with nontraditional families . Death Studies , 20 : 557 – 575 .
  • Ewing , C. 1997 . Fatal families: The dynamics of intrafamilial homicide , Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage Publications .
  • Faberow , N. 2001 . “ Helping suicide survivors ” . In Suicide prevention: Resources for the millennium , Edited by: Lester , D. Philadelphia : Taylor & Francis .
  • Federal Bureau of Investigation . 1999 . Section III: Crime Index Offenses Cleared Retrieved May 8,2003 from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/Cius_99/99crime/99cius3.pdf
  • Garmezy , N. 1985 . “ Stress resistant children: The search for protective factors ” . In Recent research in developmental psychopathology , Edited by: Stevenson , J. Oxford : Pergamon Press .
  • Gergen , K. J. and Gergen , M. M. 1988 . “ Narrative and the self as relationship ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Berkowitz , L. 17 – 56 . New York : Academic Press .
  • Greeff , A. P. and Human , B. 2004 . Resilience in families in which a parent has died . American Journal of Family Therapy , 32 : 27 – 42 .
  • Harvey , A. G. 1999 . “ Psychological approaches to the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder ” . In The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Edited by: Hickling , E. J. and Blanchard , E. B. 241 – 352 . Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science .
  • Hewitt , J. 1980 . After suicide , Philadelphia : Westminster Press .
  • Jacobs , S. and Prigerson , H. 1999 . Psychotherapy of traumatic grief: A review of evidence for psychotherapeutic treatment . Death Studies , 24 : 479 – 495 .
  • Jacobson , R. R. 1999 . “ Road accidents and the mind: The post-concussional syndrome ” . In The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Edited by: Hickling , E. J. and Blanchard , E. B. 89 – 11 . Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science .
  • Janoff-Bulman , R. 1992 . Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma , New York : Free Press .
  • Janoff-Bulman , R. 1985 . “ The aftermath of victimization: Rebuilding shattered assumptions ” . In Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder , 15 – 35 . New York : Brunner/Mazel .
  • Jeavons , S. 1999 . “ The Bendigo Road Accident Research Project: Predicting who suffers psychological trauma in the first year after a road accident ” . In The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Edited by: Hickling , E. J. and Blanchard , E. B. 221 – 232 . Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science .
  • Jones , W. H. and Buttery , M. 1981 . Sudden death: Survivors' perceptions of their emergency department experience . Journal of Emergency Nursing , 7 : 14 – 17 .
  • Jordan , J. R. 2001 . Is suicide bereavement different? A reassessment of the literature . Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior , 31 : 91 – 102 .
  • Klagsbrun , F. 1976 . Too young to die: Youth and suicide , Boston : Houghton Mifflin .
  • Kock , W. J. , Shercliffe , R. , Fedoroff , I. , Iverson , G. L. and Taylor , S. 1999 . “ Malingering and litigation stress in motor vehicle accident victims ” . In The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Edited by: Hickling , E. J. and Blanchard , E. B. Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science .
  • Leash , R. M. 1994 . Death notification: A practical guide to the process , Hinesburg, VT : Upper Access .
  • Lehman , D. R. , Wortman , C. B. and Williams , A. F. 1987 . Long-term effects of losing a spouse or child in a motor vehicle crash . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 : 218 – 231 .
  • Lerner , M. J. and Gignac , M. A. M. 1992 . “ Is it coping or is it growth? A cognitive-affective model of contentmentin the elderly ” . In Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood , Edited by: Montada , L. , Filipp , S. and Lerner , M. J. 321 – 377 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
  • Lester , D. 1989 . Questions and answers about suicide , Philadelphia, PA : The Charles Press .
  • Levy , A. J. and Wall , J. C. 2000 . Children who have witnessed community homicide: Incorporating risk and resilience in clinical work . Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services , 81 : 402 – 411 .
  • Lord , J. H. 1998 . Reunion of hope Retrieved on May 8, 2004 from http://www.madd.org/news/0,1056,2617,00.html MADDvocate, Summer, Mothers Against Drunk Driving
  • Lord , J. 1996 . “ America's number one killer: Vehicular crashes ” . In Living with grief after sudden loss , Edited by: Doka , K. J. 25 – 39 . Bristol, PA : Taylor and Francis .
  • Martikainen , P. and Valkonen , T. 1996 . Mortality after the death of a spouse: Rates and causes of death in a large Finnish cohort . American Journal of Public Health , 86 : 1087 – 1093 .
  • Mayou , R. 1999 . “ Medical, social and legal consequences ” . In The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Edited by: Hickling , E. J. and Blanchard , E. B. Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science .
  • Mercer , D. Drunk driving victimization or non-victimization effects on volunteer victim advocates . Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies . San Antonio, TX.
  • Mercer , D. L. and Evans , J. M. 2002 . “ Multiple Losses, Unmourned Grief ” . In MADDvocate Retrieved on May 8, 2004 from http://www.madd.org/news/0,1056,4356,00.htmlWinter. Mothers Against Drunk Driving
  • Mercer , D. , Falkenberg , S. and Lorden , R. 1999 . Spirituality and drunk driving victimization Dallas MADDvocate, Mothers Against Drunk Driving Winter: 13
  • Mercer , D. and Lord , J. 2000 . Don't call me lucky Retrieved May 8, 2004 from http://www.madd.org/victims/0,1056,1899,00.htmlMothers Against Drunk Driving
  • Michalowski , R. J. 1976 . The social meanings of violent death . Omega , 7 : 83 – 93 .
  • Miles , M. S. and Demi , A. S. 1991 . A comparison of guilt in bereaved parents whose children died by suicide, accident or chronic disease . Omega , 24 : 203 – 215 .
  • Miller , L. 1999 . Treating posttraumatic stress disorder in children and families: Basic principles and clinical applications . The American Journal of Family Therapy , 27 : 21 – 34 .
  • Moore , M. M. and Freeman , S. J. 1995 . Counseling survivors of suicide: Implications for group postvention . Journal for Specialists in Group Work , 20 : 40 – 47 .
  • Murphy , S. A. , Das Gupta , A. , Cain , K. C. , Johnson , L. C. , Lohan , J. , Wu , W. and Mekwa , J. 1999 . Changes in parents' mental distress after the violent death of an adolescent or young adult child: A longitudinal prospective analysis . Death Studies , 22 : 209 – 235 .
  • Murphy , S. A. , Johnson , L. C. and Lohan , J. 2003 . Finding meaning in a child's violent death: A five-year prospective analysis of parents' personal narratives and empirical data . Death Studies , 27 : 381 – 404 .
  • Murphy , S. A. , Wu , L. , Fan , J. J. and Lohan , J. 2003 . Bereaved parents' outcomes 4 to 60 months after their children's deaths by accident, suicide, or homicide: A comparative study demonstrating differences . Death Studies , 27 : 27 – 39 .
  • National Safety Council . 2004 . What are the odds of dying Retrieved May 8, 2004, from http://www.nsc.org/lrs/statinfo/odds.htm
  • Neimeyer , R. A. 2001 . Reauthoring life narratives: Grief therapy as meaning reconstruction . Israel Journal of Psychiatry & Related Sciences , 38 : 541 – 550 .
  • Nelson , B. and Frantz , T. T. 1996 . Family interactions of suicide survivors and survivors of non-suicidal death . Omega , 33 : 131 – 146 .
  • Norris , F. H. 1992 . Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 60 : 409 – 418 .
  • Parappully , J. , Rosenbaum , R. , van den Daele , L. and Nzewi , J. 2002 . Thriving after trauma: The experience of parents of murdered children . Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 42 : 33 – 70 .
  • Pargament , K. 1990 . God help me: Toward a theoretical framework of coping for the psychology of religion . Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion , 2 : 195 – 224 .
  • Park , C. L. and Folkman , S. 1997 . The role of meaning in the context of stress and coping . General Review of Psychology , 1 : 115 – 144 .
  • Pennebaker , J. W. and O'Heeron , R. C. 1984 . Confiding in others and illness rates among spouses of suicide and accidental death . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 93 : 473 – 476 .
  • Perry , S. , Difede , J. , Musngi , G. , Frances , A. J. and Jacobsberg , L. 1992 . Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after burn injury . American Journal of Psychiatry , 149 : 931 – 935 .
  • Peterson , M. 2000 . The search for meaning in the aftermath of homicide: A hermeneutic phenomenological study of families of homicide victims , Minneapolis : University of Minnesota . Unpublished Doctoral dissertation
  • Prigerson , H. G. , Bierhals , A. J. , Stanislav , V. K. , Reynolds , C. F. , Shear , M. K. , Day , N. , Beery , L. C. , Newsom , J. T. and Jacobs , S. 1997 . Traumatic grief as a risk factor for mental and physical morbidity . American Journal of Psychiatry , 154 : 116 – 123 .
  • Prigerson , H. G. , Shear , M. K. , Jacobs , S. C. , Reynolds , C. F. III , Maciejewski , J. R. T. , Davidson , R. , Rosenheck , R. , Pilkonis , P. A. , Wortman , C. B. , Williams , J. B. W. , Widiger , T. A. , Frank , E. , Kupfer , D. J. and Zisook , S. 1999 . Consensus criteria for traumatic grief: A preliminary empirical test . British Journal of Psychiatry , 174 : 67 – 73 .
  • Prigerson , H. G. , Shear , M. K. , Newsom , J. T. , Frank , E. , Reynolds , C. F. III , Maciejewski , P. K. , Houck , P. R. , Bierhals , A. J. and Kupfer , D. J. 1996 . Anxiety among widowed elders: Is it distinct from depression and grief? . Anxiety , 2 : 1 – 12 .
  • Provini , C. , Everett , J. R. and Pfeffer , C. R. 2000 . Adults mourning suicide: Self-reported concerns about bereavement, needs for assistance, and help-seeking behavior . Death Studies , 24 : 1 – 19 .
  • Rando , T. 1993 . Treatment of complicated mourning , Champaign, IL : Research Press .
  • Rando , T. A. 1984 . Grief, dying, and death: Clinical interventions for caregivers , Champaign, IL : Research Press Co .
  • Reed , M. D. and Greenwald , J. Y. 1991 . Survivor-victim status, attachment and sudden death bereavement . Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior , 21 : 385 – 401 .
  • Reid , J. K. and Reid , C. L. 2001 . A cross marks the spot: A study of roadside death memorials in Texas and Oklahoma . Death Studies , 25 : 341 – 356 .
  • Rich , C. L. , Fowler , V. C. , Fogarty , L. A. and Young , D. 1988 . San Diego Suicide Study, III: Relationships between diagnosis and stressors . Archives of General Psychiatry , 45 : 589 – 592 .
  • Rinear , E. 1988 . Psychosocial aspects of parental response patterns to the death of a child by homicide . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 1 : 305 – 322 .
  • Rubin , Z. and Peplau , L. A. 1975 . Who believes in a just world? . Journal of Social Issues , 31 : 65 – 89 .
  • Rutter , M. 1987 . Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 57 : 316 – 331 .
  • Rynearson , E. K. 2001 . Retelling Violent Death , Philadelphia : Brunner/Routledge .
  • Rynearson , E. K. 1996 . Psychotherapy of bereavement: After homicide-Be offensive . In Session: Psychotherapy in Practice , 2 : 47 – 57 .
  • Rynearson , E. K. 1994 . Psychotherapy of bereavement after homicide . Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research , 34 : 1 – 347 .
  • Rynearson , E. K. , Favell , J. L. and Saindon , C. 2002 . Group intervention for bereavement after violent death . Psychiatric Services , 53 : 1340
  • Rynearson , E. K. and McCreery , J. 1993 . Bereavement after homicide: A synergism of trauma and loss . American Journal of Psychiatry , 150 : 258 – 261 .
  • Salloum , A. , Avery , L. and McClain , R. P. 2001 . Group psychotherapy for adolescent survivors of homicide victims: A pilot study . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 40 : 1261 – 1267 .
  • Salloum , A. and Vincent , N. J. 1999 . Community-based groups for inner city adolescent survivors of homicide victims . Journal of Child and Adolescent Group Therapy , 9 : 27 – 45 .
  • Schwabe-Stone , M. E. , Ayers , T. S. , Kasprow , W. , Voyce , C. , Barone , C. , Shriver , T. and Weissberg , R. P. 1995 . No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 30 : 1343 – 1352 .
  • Seguin , M. , Lesage , Al. and Kiely , M. 1995 . Parental bereavement after suicide and accident: A comparative study . Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior , 25 : 489 – 498 .
  • Shepherd , D. M. and Barraclough , B. M. 1976 . The aftermath of parental suicide for children . British Journal of Psychiatry , 129 : 267 – 276 .
  • Singh , S. B. and Raphael , B. 1984 . Postdisaster morbidity of the bereaved: A possible role for preventive psychiatry? . The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 169 : 533 – 538 .
  • Sprang , G. 1997 . PTSD in surviving family members of drunk driving episodes: Victim and crime-related factors . Families in Society , 78 : 632 – 641 .
  • Sprang , G. and McNeil , J. 1995 . The many faces of bereavement: The nature and treatment of natural, traumatic, and stigmatized grief , New York : Brunner/Mazel .
  • Spungen , D. 1998 . Homicide: The hidden victims , Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
  • Stalland , P. 1999 . “ Children and young people; The neglected victims of road traffic accidents ” . In The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Edited by: Hickling , E. J. and Blanchard , E. B. Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science .
  • Stewart , A. 1999 . Complicated bereavement and posttraumatic stress disorder following fatal car crashes: Recommendations for death notification practice . Death Studies , 123 : 289 – 321 .
  • Stewart , A. and Lord , J. H. 2002 . Motor vehicle crash versus accident: A change in terminology is necessary . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 15 : 333 – 335 .
  • Tedeschi , R. G. 1999 . Violence transformed: Posttraumatic growth in survivors and their societies . Aggression and Violent Behavior , 4 : 319 – 341 .
  • Tedeschi , R. G. and Calhoun , L. G. 1995 . Trauma and transformation: Growing in the aftermath of suffering , Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage Publications .
  • Thompson , M. P. and Vardaman , P. J. 1997 . The role of religion in coping with the loss of a family member to homicide . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion , 36 : 44 – 51 .
  • Umbreit , M. S. , Vos , B. , Coates , R. B. and Brown , K. A. 2003 . Facing violence: The path of restorative justice and dialogue , Monsey, NY : Criminal Justice Press .
  • US Department of Justice . 2003 . Homicide trends in the US: 2000 update Retrieved April 13, 2004) from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/htus00.pdf
  • Van Dongen , S. 1990 . Agonizing questioning: Experiences of survivors of suicide victims . Nursing Research , 39 : 224 – 229 .
  • Virginia Mason . 2001 . Separation and loss services: The need for the homicide support project Retrieved May 8, 2004 from http://www.vmmc.org/dbSeparation/sec70518.htm
  • Walton , N. 1999 . “ Brain injury and the mind: The neuropsychology of mild traumatic brain injury ” . In The international handbook of road traffic accidents and psychological trauma: Current understanding, treatment and law , Edited by: Hickling , E. J. and Blanchard , E. B. 57 – 66 . Kidlington, Oxford, , UK : Elsevier Science Ltd .
  • Werner , E. E. 1989 . High-risk children in young adulthood: A longitudinal study from birth to 32 years . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 59 : 72 – 81 .
  • Winje , D. and Ulvik , A. 1998 . Long-term outcome of trauma in children: The psychological consequences of a bus accident . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 39 : 635 – 642 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.