3
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

The Consequences of Marijuana Use During Pregnancy: A Review of the Human Literature

Pages 85-104 | Published online: 17 Oct 2008

REFERENCES

  • Abel , E. L. 1980 . Marihuana: The First Twelve Thousand Years. New York : Plenum Press. .
  • Astley , S. and Little , R. 1990 . Maternal marijuana use during lactation and infant development at one year. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 12 : 161 – 168 .
  • Bayley , N. 1989 . Bayley Scales of Infant Development. New York : Psychological Corporation. .
  • Barkley , R. A. 1996 . “ Critical issues in research on attention. In ” . In Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Edited by: Lyon , G. R. and Krasnegor , N. A. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes. .
  • Barkley , R. A. 1997 . Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. . Psychol Bull , 121 : 65 – 94 .
  • Brazelton , T. B. 1973 . Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. London : William Heinemann and Sons. .
  • Charlebois , A. T. and Fried , P. A. 1980 . The interactive effects of nutrition and cannabis upon rat perinatal development. . Dev Psychobiol , 13 : 591 – 605 .
  • Conners , C. 1989 . Manual for Conners Rating Scales. Toronto : MultiHealth Systems. .
  • Dalterio , S. L. and Fried , P. A. 1992 . “ The effects of marijuana use on offspring. In ” . In Perinatal Substance Abuse. Edited by: Sonderegger , T. B. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press .
  • Damasio , A. R. and Anderson , S. W. 1993 . “ The frontal lobes ” . In Clinical Neuro-psychology, , 3rd ed. Edited by: Heilman , K. M. and Valenstein , E. New York : Oxford University Press. .
  • Day , N. , Cornelius , M. , Goldschmidt , L. , Richardson , G. , Robles , N. and Taylor , P. 1992 . The effects of prenatal tobacco and marijuana use on offspring growth from birth through 3 years of age. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 14 : 407 – 414 .
  • Day , N. L. , Richardson , G. A. , Geva , D. and Robles , N. 1994a . Alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco: Effects of prenatal exposure on offspring growth and morphology at age six. . Alcohol Clin Exper Res , 18 : 786 – 794 .
  • Day , N. L. , Richardson , G. A. , Goldschmidt , L. , Robles , N. , Taylor , P. , Stofer , D. S. , Cornelius , M. D. and Geva , D. 1994b . Effect of prenatal marijuana exposure on the cognitive development of offspring at age three . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 16 : 169 – 175 .
  • Day , N. , Sambamoorthi , U. , Taylor , P. , Richardson , G. , Robles , N. , John , Y. , Scher , M. , Stoffer , D. , Cornelius , M. and Jasperse , D. 1991 . Prenatal marijuana use and neonatal outcomes. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 13 : 329 – 334 .
  • Denckla , M. B. 1993 . “ Measurement of executive function. In ” . In Frames of Reference for the Assessment of Learning Disabilities: New Views on Measurement Issues. Edited by: Lyon , G. R. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes. .
  • Denckla , M. B. 1996 . “ A theory and model of executive function. ” . In In Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Edited by: Lyon , G. R. and Krasnegor , N. A. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes. .
  • Diamond , A. 2000 . Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. . Child Develop , 71 : 44 – 56 .
  • Dreher , M. 1997 . “ Cannabis and pregnancy. In ” . In Cannabis in Medical Practice: A Legal, Historical and Pharmacological Overview of the Therapeutic Use of Marijuana. Edited by: Mathre , M. L. Jefferson, NC : McFarland. .
  • Dreher , M. C. , Nugent , K. and Hudgins , R. 1994 . Prenatal marijuana exposure and neonatal outcomes in Jamaica: An ethnographic study. . Pediatrics , 93 : 254 – 260 .
  • Fried , P. A. 1982 . Marihuana use by pregnant women and effects on offspring: An update. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 4 : 451 – 454 .
  • Fried , P. A. 1996 . “ Behavioral outcomes in preschool and school-age children exposed prenatally to marijuana: A review and speculative interpretation. In ” . In Behavioral Studies of Drug-Exposed Offspring: Methodological Issues in Human and Animal Research. , National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph 164 Edited by: Wetherington , C. L. , Smeriglio , V. L. and Finnegan , L. P. Washington : U.S. Government Printing Office. .
  • Fried , P. A. 1998 . “ Behavioral evaluation of the older infant and child. In ” . In Handbook of Developmental Neurotoxicology. Edited by: Slikker , W. Jr. and Chang , C. W. San Diego : Academic Press. .
  • Fried , P. A. 2002 . Conceptual issues in behavioral teratology and their application in determining long-term sequelae of prenatal marihuana exposure. . J Child Psychol Psychiat , 43 : 81 – 102 .
  • Fried , P. A. 2001 . “ Schwangerschaft. In ” . In Cannabis und Cannabinoide. Pharmakologie, Toxikologie und therapeutisches Potenzial. Edited by: Grotenhermen , F. Bern, , Switzerland : Verlag Hans Huber. .
  • Fried , P. A. , Buckingham , M. and Von Kulmiz , P. 1983 . Marijuana use during pregnancy and perinatal risk factors. . Amer J Obstet Gynecol , 144 : 922 – 924 .
  • Fried , P. A. and O'Connell , C. M. 1987 . A comparison of the effects of prenatal exposure to tobacco, alcohol, cannabis and caffeine on birth size and subsequent growth. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 9 : 79 – 85 .
  • Fried , P. A. , James , D. S. and Watkinson , B. 2001 . Growth and pubertal milestones during adolescence in offspring prenatally exposed up to cigarettes and marihuana. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 23 : 431 – 436 .
  • Fried , P. A. and Makin , J. E. 1987 . Neonatal behavioural correlates of prenatal exposure to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol in a low risk population. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 9 : 1 – 7 .
  • Fried , P. A. , O'Connell , C. M. and Watkinson , B. 1992 . 60-and 72-month follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes and alcohol: Cognitive and language assessment. . J Dev Behav Pediatr , 13 : 383 – 391 .
  • Fried , P. A. and Smith , A. 2001 . A literature review of the consequences of prenatal marihuana exposure. An emerging theme of a deficiency in aspects of executive function. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 23 : 1 – 11 .
  • Fried , P. A. and Watkinson , B. 1988 . 12-and 24-month neurobehavioural follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 10 : 305 – 313 .
  • Fried , P. A. and Watkinson , B. 1990 . 36-and 48-month neurobehavioral follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes and alcohol. . J Dev Behav Pediatr , 11 : 49 – 58 .
  • Fried , P. A. and Watkinson , B. 2000 . Visuoperceptual functioning differs in 9-to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 22 : 11 – 20 .
  • Fried , P. A. and Watkinson , B. 2001 . Differential effects on facets of attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 23 : 421 – 430 .
  • Fried , P. A. , Watkinson , B. , Dillon , R. F. and Dulberg , C. S. 1987 . Neonatal neurological status in a low-risk population after prenatal exposure to cigarettes, marijuana and alcohol. . J Dev Behav Ped , 8 : 318 – 326 .
  • Fried , P. A. , Watkinson , B. , Grant , A. and Knights , R. K. 1980 . Changing patterns of soft drug use prior to and during pregnancy: A prospective study. . Drug Alcohol Depend , 6 : 323 – 343 .
  • Fried , P. A. , Watkinson , B. and Gray , R. 1992 . A follow-up study of attentional behavior in 6-year-old children exposed prenatally to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 14 : 299 – 311 .
  • Fried , P. A. , Watkinson , B. and Gray , R. 1998 . Differential effects on cognitive functioning in 9-to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 20 : 293 – 306 .
  • Fried , P. A. , Watkinson , B. and Gray , R. 1999 . Growth from birth to early adolescence in offspring prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 21 : 513 – 525 .
  • Fried , P. A. , Watkinson , B. and Willan , A. 1984 . Marijuana use during pregnancy and decreased length of gestation. . Am J Obstet Gynecol , 150 : 23 – 27 .
  • Fuster , J. M. 1989 . The Prefrontal Cortex: Anatomy, Physiology, and Neuropsychology of the Frontal Lobe, , 2nd ed. New York : Raven Press. .
  • Gibson , G. T. , Bayhurst , P. A. and Colley , G. P. 1983 . Maternal alcohol, tobacco and cannabis consumption and the outcome of pregnancy. . Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaec , 23 : 15 – 19 .
  • Glass , M. , Dragunow , M. and Faull , R. L.M. 1997 . Cannabinoid receptors in the human brain: A detailed anatomical and quantitative autoradiographic study in the fetal, neonatal and adult human brain. . Neuroscience , 77 : 299 – 318 .
  • Goldschmidt , L. , Day , N. L. and Richardson , G. A. 2000 . Effects of prenatal marijuana exposure on child behavior problems at age 10. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 22 : 325 – 336 .
  • Golub , M. S. , Sassenrath , E. N. and Chapman , C. F. 1987 . Regulation of visual attention in offspring of female monkeys treated chronically with delta-9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol. . Dev Psychobiol , 14 : 507 – 512 .
  • Gordon , M. and McClure , D. F. 1984 . Gordon Diagnostic System: Interpretative Supplement. Golden, CO : Clinical Diagnostics. .
  • Graham , K. , Feigenbaum , A. , Pastuszak , A. , Nulman , I. , Weksberg , R. , Einarson , T. , Goldberg , S. , Ashby , S. and Koren , G. 1992 . Pregnancy outcome and infant development following gestational cocaine use by social cocaine users in Toronto, Canada. . Clin Investigative Med , 15 : 384 – 394 .
  • Greenberg , L. M. and Kindschi , C. L. 1996 . T.O.V.A.® Clinical Guide. Los Alamitos : Universal Attention Disorders. .
  • Greenland , S. , Richwald , G. A. and Honda , G. D. 1983 . The effects of marijuana use during pregnancy. II. A study in a low risk home-delivery population. . Drug Alcohol Depend , 11 : 359 – 366 .
  • Greenland , S. , Staisch , K. J. , Brown , N. and Gross , S. J. 1982 . The effects of marijuana use during pregnancy. I. A preliminary epidemiologic study. . Amer J Obstet Gynecol , 143 : 408 – 413 .
  • Griffith , D. R. , Azuma , S. D. and Chasnoff , I. J. 1994 . Three-year outcome of children exposed prenatally to drugs. . J Amer Acad Child Adolesc Psychiat , 33 : 20 – 27 .
  • Halperin , J. M. 1996 . “ Conceptualizing, describing, and measuring components of attention. A summary. In ” . In Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Edited by: Lyon , G. R. and Krasnegor , N. A. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes. .
  • Hatch , E. E. and Bracken , M. R. 1986 . Effects of marijuana use in pregnancy on fetal growth. . Amer J Epidemiol , 124 : 986 – 993 .
  • Hayes , J. , Dreher , M. and Nugent , K. 1988 . Newborn outcomes with maternal use in Jamaican women. . Pediatr Nurs , 14 : 107 – 110 .
  • Hurt , H. , Brodsky , N. L. , Betancourt , L. , Braitman , L. E. , Malmud , E. and Giannetta , J. 1995 . Cocaine-exposed children: Follow-up through 30 months. . Dev Behav Ped , 16 : 29 – 35 .
  • Johnston , L. , O'Malley , P. and Bachman , J. 1994 . National survey results on drug use from Monitoring the Future study, 1975–1993, Vol. 2 College Students and Young Adults. 94 – 3809 . Rockville, MD : NIDA . NIH Publication Number
  • Johnston , L. , O'Malley , P. and Bachman , J. 1996 . National survey results on drug use from the Monitoring the Future study, 1975–1994, Vol. 2 College Students and Young Adults. 96 – 4027 . Rockville, MD : NIDA . NIH Publication Number
  • Leech , S. L. , Richardson , G. , Goldschmidt , L. and Day , N. L. 1999 . Prenatal substance exposure: Effects on attention and impulsivity of 6-year-olds. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 21 : 109 – 118 .
  • Lester , B. and Dreher , B. M. 1989 . Effects of marihuana use during pregnancy on newborn cry. . Child Dev , 60 : 765 – 771 .
  • Levin , H. S. , Culhane , K. A. , Hartman , J. , Evankovich , K. , Mattson , A. J. , Harward , H. , Ringholtz , G. , Ewing-Cobbs , L. and Fletcher , J. M. 1991 . Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning. . Develop. Neuropsychol , 7 : 377 – 395 .
  • Lezak , M. D. 1995 . Neuropsychological Assessment, , 3rd ed. New York : Oxford University Press. .
  • Luria , A. R. 1973 . The Working Brain. An Introduction to Neuropsychology. London : Penguin Press. .
  • McKay , K. E. , Halperin , J. M. , Schwartz , S. T. and Sharma , V. 1994 . Developmental analysis of three aspects of information processing: Sustained attention, selective attention, and response organization. . Dev Neuropsychol , 10 : 121 – 132 .
  • McCarthy , P. 1972 . McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. New York : The Psychological Corporation. .
  • Mirsky , A. F. 1996 . “ Disorders of attention. A neuropsychological perspective. ” . In In Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Edited by: Lyon , G. R. and Krasnegor , N. A. Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes. .
  • National Pregnancy and Health Survey. 1996 . Drug use among women delivering live births, 1992 96 – 3819 . Rockville, MD : NIDA . NIH Publication Number
  • O'Connell , C. M. and Fried , P. A. 1984 . An investigation of prenatal Cannabis exposure and minor physical anomalies in a low risk population. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 6 : 345 – 350 .
  • O'Connell , C. M. and Fried , P. A. 1991 . Prenatal exposure to cannabis: A preliminary report of postnatal consequences in school-age children. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 13 : 631 – 639 .
  • Reitan , R. and Davison , L. 1974 . Clinical Neuropsychology. New York : John Wiley and Sons. .
  • Richardson , G. A. and Day , N. L. 1997 . A comparison of the effect of prenatal marijuana, alcohol, and cocaine use on 10-year child outcome. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 19 : 256
  • Richardson , G. , Day , N. and Taylor , P. 1989 . The effect of prenatal alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco exposure on neonatal behavior. . Infant Behav Dev , 12 : 199 – 209 .
  • Richardson , G. A. , Day , N. L. and Goldschmidt , L. 1995 . Prenatal alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use: Infant mental and motor development. . Neurotoxicol Teratol , 17 : 479 – 487 .
  • Scher , M. , Richardson , G. , Coble , P. , Day , N. and Stoffer , D. 1988 . The effects of prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure: Disturbances in neonatal sleep cycling and arousal. . Pediatr Res , 24 : 101 – 105 .
  • Siegel , L. S. and Ryan , E. B. 1989 . The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. . Child Dev , 60 : 973 – 980 .
  • Spreen , O. and Strauss , E. 1991 . A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms and Commentary. London : Oxford University Press. .
  • Stuss , D. T. 1992 . Biological and psychological development of executive functions. . Brain Cognit , 20 : 8 – 23 .
  • Tennes , K. , Avitable , N. , Blackard , C. , Boyles , C. , Hassoun , B. , Holmes , L. and Kreye , M. 1985 . “ Marijuana: Prenatal and postnatal exposure in the human. In ” . In Current Research on the Consequences of Maternal Drug Abuse. , NIDA Research Monograph No. 59 Edited by: Pinkert , T. M. Rockville : U.S. Department of Human Health and Services .
  • Thorndike , R. L. , Hagan , E. and Sattler , J. 1986 . The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale:, , 4th ed. Chicago : Riverside Publishing. .
  • Welsh , M. C. , Pennington , B. F. and Groisser , D. B. 1991 . A normative-developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children. . Develop Neuropsychol , 7 : 131 – 149 .
  • Wechsler , D. 1991 . Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, , 3rd ed. New York : The Psychological Corporation. .
  • Zuckerman , B. , Frank , D. , Hingson , R. , Amaro , H. , Levenson , S. , Kayne , H. , Parker , S. , Vinci , R. , Aboagye , K. , Fried , L. , Cabral , H. , Timperi , R. and Bauchner , H. 1989 . Effects of maternal marijuana and cocaine use on fetal growth. . N Eng J Med , 320 : 762 – 768 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.