Somatoform Dissociation in Traumatized World War I Combat Soldiers

References

• American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . DSM-IV , Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Babington , A. 1983 . For the sake of example: Capital courts martial 1914–1918 , London : Leo Cooper .
   Google Scholar
• Babington , A. 1997 . Shell-shock: A history of the changing attitudes to war neurosis , London : Leo Cooper .
   Google Scholar
• Babinski , J. and Froment , J. 1918 . Hystérie-pithiatisme et troubles nerveux d'ordre réflexe en neurologie de guerre , Paris : Masson & Cie .
   Google Scholar
• Bickel , H. 1918 . Über die Kriegsneurosen, ihre Entstehung und die Erforge ihrer Behandlung: Zur Auffassung der Hysterie als “Affektneurose.” . Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie , 44 : 189 – 218 .
   Google Scholar
• Bogacz , T. 1989 . War neurosis and cultural change in England, 1914–22: The work of the War Office Committee of Enquiry into ‘Shell-Shock.’ . Journal of Contemporary History , 24 : 227 – 256 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowman , E. S . 1993 . The etiology and clinical course of pseudoseizures: Relationship to trauma, depression and dissociation . Psychosomatics , 34 : 333 – 342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun , B. G. 1988 . The BASK model of dissociation . Dissociation , 1 : 4 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , M. and Williams , F. E . 1918 . Neuropsychiatry and the war , New York : War Work Committee, The National Committee for Mental Hygiene .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , P. , Van der Hart , O. and Graafland , M. 1999 . Trauma-induced dissociative amnesia in World War I combat soldiers. II. Treatment dimensions . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 33 : 392 – 398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , W. 1918 . The treatment of cases of shell shock in an advanced neurological center . The Lancet , 17 August : 197 – 200 .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , W. 1919 . War neuroses: A comparison of early cases seen in the field with those seen at the base . The Lancet , 17 : 833 – 836 . May
   Google Scholar
• Brown , W. 1919 . Hypnosis, suggestion, and dissociation . The British Medical Journal , : 734 – 736 . (b)June 14
   Google Scholar
• Brown , W. 1934 . Psychology and psychotherapy, , 3rd. Ed , London : Edward Arnold & Co. . (Second edition 1922.)
   Google Scholar
• Cardeña , E. , Maldonado , J. , Van der Hart , O. and Spiegel , D. 2000 . “ Hypnosis ” . In Effective treatments for PTSD , Edited by: Foa , E. , Keane , T. and Friedman , M. 407 – 440 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Culpin , M. 1931 . Recent advances in the study of the psychoneuroses , London : J. & A. Churchill .
   Google Scholar
• Dumas , G. 1919 . Troubles mentaux et troubles nerveux de guerre , Paris : Félix Alcan .
   Google Scholar
• Eder , M. D . 1917 . War-shock: The psycho-neuroses in war; psychology and treatment , London : W. Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Eissler , K. 1986 . Freud as an expert witness: The discussion of war neuroses between Freud and Wagner-Jauregg , Madison, CT : International Universities Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ellenberger , H. F . 1970 . The discovery of the unconscious , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Ferenczi , S. 1919 . “ Über zwei Typen der Kriegshysterie ” . In Hysterie und Pathoneurosen , Edited by: Ferenczi , S. 59 – 78 . Leipzig and Vienna : Internationaler Psychoana-lytischer Verlag . (a)
   Google Scholar
• Ferenczi , S. 1919 . “ Die Psychoanalyse der Kriegsneurosen ” . In Zur Psychoanalyse der Kriegsneurosen , 9 – 30 . Leipzig and Vienna : Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag . (b) S. Freud and others
   Google Scholar
• Ferenczi , S. 1921 . “ Psychoanalytic observations on tics ” . In Further contributions in psychoanalysis (Quoted by Leys, 2000.)
   Google Scholar
• Feudtner , C. 1993 . “Minds the dead have ravished”: Shell shock, history, and the ecology of disease-systems . History of Science , 31 : 377 – 420 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freud , S. 1919 . “ Einleitung ” . In Zur Psychoanalyse der Kriegsneurosen , 1 – 7 . Leipzig and Vienna : Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag . S. Freud and others
   Google Scholar
• Gaup , R. 1915 . Hysterie und Kriegsdienst . Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift , 62 : 361 – 363 .
   Google Scholar
• Gaup , R. 1916 . Kriegsneurosen . Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie , 34 : 357 – 390 .
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , M. 1995 . First World War , London : HarperCollins .
   Google Scholar
• Grasset , J. 1915 . Les psychonévroses de guerre . Presse Médicale , 23 : 105 – 108 .
   Google Scholar
• Hargreaves , R. 1940 . “ The differential diagnosis of the psychoneuroses of war ” . In The neuroses in war , Edited by: Miller , E. 85 – 104 . London : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Hart , B. 1929 . Psychopathology: Its development and its place in medicine, , 2nd. Ed. , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Horowitz , M. J . 1976 . Stress response syndromes , Northvale, NJ : Jason Aronson .
   Google Scholar
• Janet , P. 1889 . L'automatisme psychologique , Paris : Félix Alcan .
   Google Scholar
• Janet , P. 1894 . Histoire d'une idée fixe . Revue Philosophique , 37 ( I ) : 121 – 163 .
   Google Scholar
• Janet , P. 1898 . Névroses et idées fixes , Paris : Félix Alcan .
   Google Scholar
• Janet , P. 1901 . The mental state of hystericals , New York : Putnam . Reprint: University Publications of America, Washington, DC, 1977
   Google Scholar
• Janet , P. 1907 . Major symptoms of hysteria , New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Janet , P. 1911 . L'Etat mental des hystériques, , 2nd. Ed. , Paris : Félix Alcan .
   Google Scholar
• Janet , P. 1919 . Psychological healing , New York : Macmillan . 25
   Google Scholar
• Kardiner , A. 1941 . The traumatic neuroses of war , New York : Paul Hoeber .
   Google Scholar
• Kutzinski , A. 1918 . Klinisches und Theoretisches zur sog. Kriegsneurose . Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie , 44 : 343 – 368 .
   Google Scholar
• Kuyk , J. 1999 . Pseudo-epileptic seizures: Differential diagnosis and psychological characteristics , Amsterdam : Vrije Universiteit .
   Google Scholar
• Leed , E. J . 1979 . No man's land: Combat & identity in World War I , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lépine , J. 1917 . Troubles mentaux de guerre , Paris : Masson & Cie .
   Google Scholar
• Léri , A. 1918 . Commotions et émotions de guerre , Paris : Masson & Cie .
   Google Scholar
• Leys , R. 1994 . Traumatic cures: Shell shock, Janet, and the question of memory . Critical Inquiry , 20 : 623 – 662 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leys , R. 2000 . Trauma: A genealogy , Chicago : The University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Liebermeister , G. 1917 . Über die Behandlung von Kriegsneurosen , Halle, A.S. : Carl Marhold .
   Google Scholar
• MacCurdy , J. T . 1918 . War Neuroses , London : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Macdonald , L. 1988 . 1914–1918: Voices and images of the Great War , London : Penguin Books .
   Google Scholar
• Maxwell , W. M . 1923 . A psychological retrospect of the Great War London (Quoted by Leed, 1979.)
   Google Scholar
• McDougall , W. 1920 . “ SUMMARY ” . In Functional nerve disease: An epithome of war experience for the practitioner , Edited by: Miller , H. C. 181 – 198 . London : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• McDougall , W. 1926 . An outline of abnormal psychology , London : Methuen .
   Google Scholar
• Marr , H. C . 1919 . Psychosis of the war , London : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , R. D , Spitzer , R. and Liebowitz , M. R . 1999 . Review and critique of the new DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder . American Journal of Psychiatry , 156 : 1677 – 1685 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , E. 1940 . The neuroses in war , London : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell , T. W . 1922 . Medical psychology and psychical research , London : Me-thuen .
   Google Scholar
• Mott , F. W . 1916 . The Lettsimian lectures on: The effects of high explosives upon the central nervous system . The Lancet , 26 : 331 – 338 . 441 – 449 . 545 – 553 . February 12 and March 11
   Google Scholar
• Mott , F. W . 1917 . Special discussion on shell shock without visible signs of injury . Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine; Section of Neurology and Psychiatry , 9 : 1 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Mott , F. W . 1919 . War neuroses and shell shock , London : Henry Frowde, Hodder & Stoughton .
   Google Scholar
• Myers , C. S . 1915 . A contribution to the study of shell shock: Being an account of three cases of loss of memory, vision, smell, and taste, admitted into the Duchess of Westminster's War Hospital, Le Touquet . The Lancet , 13 February : 316 – 320 .
   Google Scholar
• Myers , C. S . 1916 . Contributions to the study of shell shock . The Lancet , 18 March : 608 – 613 . (a)
   Google Scholar
• Myers , C. S . 1916 . Contributions to the study of shell shock . The Lancet , : 461 – 467 . (b) September 9
   Google Scholar
• Myers , C. S . 1940 . Shell shock in France 1914–18 , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nemiah , J. C . 1991 . Dissociation, conversion, and somatization . Annual Review of Psychiatry , 10 : 248 – 260 .
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS . 1999 . Somatoform dissociation: Phenomena, measurement, and theoretical issues , Assen, , The Netherlands : Van Gorcum .
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS . 2000 . Somatoform dissociation: Major symptoms of dissociative disorders in the 19th and 20th Century . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 1 ( 4 ) : 7 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS , Spinhoven , P. , Van Dyck , R. , Van der Hart , O. and Vanderlinden , J. 1996 . The development and psychometric characteristics of the Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20) . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 184 : 688 – 694 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS , Spinhoven , P. , Vanderlinden , J. , Van Dyck , R. and Van der Hart , O. 1998 . Somatoform dissociative symptoms as related to animal defensive reactions to predatory imminence and injury . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 107 : 63 – 73 . (a)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS , Vanderlinden , J. and Spinhoven , P. 1998 . Animal defensive reactions as a model for trauma-induced dissociative reactions . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 243 – 260 . (b)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS , Spinhoven , P. , Van Dyck , R. , Van der Hart , O. and Vanderlinden , J. 1998 . Degree of somatoform and psychological dissociation in dissociative disorder is correlated with reported trauma . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 711 – 730 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS and Van der Hart , O. 1999 . “ Forgetting and reexperiencing trauma: From anesthesia to pain ” . In Splintered reflections: Images of the body in trauma , Edited by: Goodwin , J. and Attias , R. 39 – 65 . New York : BasicBooks . (a)
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS and Van der Hart , O. 1999 . “ Somatoform disociative phenomena: A Janetian perspective ” . In Splintered reflections: Images of the body in trauma , Edited by: Goodwin , J. and Attias , R. 89 – 127 . New York : BasicBooks . (b)
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS , Van der Hart , O. and Kruger , K. The psychometric qualities of the Traumatic Experiences Questionnaire (submitted)
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS , Van der Hart , O. and Steele , K. 2000 . “ Strukturale Dissoziation der Persönlichkeit: Über ihre traumatischen Wurzeln und die phobischen Mechanismen die sie in Gang halten [Structural dissociation of the personality: Traumatic origins, phobic maintenance] ” . In Behandlung Dissoziativer Störungen [Treatment of dissociative disorders] , Edited by: Hofmann , A. , Reddemann , L. and Gast , U. xx – xx . Stuttgart : Thieme Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. RS , Van Dyck , R. , Spinhoven , P. , Van der Hart , O. , Chatrou , M. , Vanderlinden , J. and Moene , F. 1999 . Somatoform dissociation discriminates among diagnostic categories over and above general psychopathology . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 33 : 512 – 520 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oppenheim , H. 1915 . Der Krieg und die traumatische Neurosen . Berliner klinische Wochenschrift , 52 : 161 – 257 .
   Google Scholar
• Remarque , E. M. 1982 . All quiet on the Western front , Edited by: Ween , A. W. New York : Ballantine Books . (Original work published in 1929)
   Google Scholar
• Rivers , W. HR . 1920 . Instinct and the unconscious: A contribution to a biological theory of the psycho-neuroses , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ross , T. A . 1941 . Lectures on war neuroses , London : Edward Arnold .
   Google Scholar
• Roussy , G. and Lhermitte , J. 1917 . Les psychonévroses de guerre , Paris : Masson & Cie .
   Google Scholar
• Salmon , T. W . 1921 . Some problems of disabled ex-service men three years after the armistice . Mental Hygiene , 6 (Quoted by Babington, 1997)
   Google Scholar
• Sassoon , S. 1983 . The war poems , London : Faber & Faber .
   Google Scholar
• Shephard , B. 1999 . ‘Pitiless psychology’: The role of prevention in British military psychiatry in the Second World War . History of Psychiatry , 10 : 491 – 524 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simmel , E. 1919 . “ Zweites Korreferat ” . In Zur Psychoanalyse der Kriegsneurosen , 42 – 60 . Leipzig and Vienna : Internationaler Psychoana-lytischer Verlag . S. Freud and others
   Google Scholar
• Smith , G. E and Pear , T. H . 1917 . Shell shock and its lessons, , 2nd. Ed. , London : Longmans, Green & Co .
   Google Scholar
• Southard , E. E . 1919 . Shell-shock and other neuropsychiatric problems presented in five hundred and eighty-nine case histories from the war literature, 1914–1918 , Boston : W.M. Leonard .
   Google Scholar
• Stern , H. 1917 . Die hysterische Bewegungsstörungen als Massenerscheinung im Krieg, ihre Entsstehung und Progonose . Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie , 39 : 246 – 281 .
   Google Scholar
• Stone , M. 1985 . “ Shellshock and the psychologists ” . In The anatomy of madness, Vol. II: Institutions and society , Edited by: Bynum , W. F. , Porter , R. and Shepherd , M. 242 – 271 . London : Tavistock .
   Google Scholar
• Thom , D. 1943 . War neurosis: Experiences of 1914–1918 . Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine , 28 : 586 – 602 . (Quoted by Leed, 1979)
   Google Scholar
• Van Bergen , L. 1999 . Zacht en eervol: Lijden en sterven in een Grote Oorlog , Nijmegen : SUA .
   Google Scholar
• Van der Hart , O. , Brown , P. and Graafland , M. 1999 . Trauma-induced dissociative amnesia in World War I combat soldiers . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 33 : 37 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Hart , O. and Friedman , B. 1989 . A reader's guide to Pierre Janet on dissociation: A neglected intellectual heritage . Dissociation , 2 : 3 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Van der Hart , O. and Brown , P. 1992 . Abreaction re-evaluated . Dissociation , 5 : 127 – 140 .
   Google Scholar
• Van der Hart , O. , Steele , K. , Boon , S. and Brown , P. 1993 . The treatment of traumatic memory: Synthesis, realization, integration . Dissociation , 6 : 162 – 180 .
   Google Scholar
• Van der Hart , O. , Van der Kolk , B. A and Boon , S. 1998 . “ Treatment of dissociative disorders ” . In Trauma, memory, and dissociation , Edited by: Bremner , J. D. and Marmar , C. R. 253 – 283 . Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .
   Google Scholar
• Van der Hart , O. , Witztum , E. and Friedman , B. 1993 . From hysterical psychosis to reactive dissociative psychosis . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 6 : 43 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Kolk , B. A. and Fisler , R. 1995 . Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 8 : 505 – 525 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Kolk , B. A. and Van der Hart , O. 1991 . The intrusive past: The flexibility of memory and the engraving of trauma . American Imago , 48 : 425 – 445 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waller , G. , Hamilton , K. , Elliott , P. , Lewendon , J. , Stopa , L. Waters , A. 2000 . Somatoform dissociation, psychological dissociation and specific forms of trauma . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 1 ( 4 ) : 81 – 98 .
   Google Scholar
• War Office Committee . 1922 . Report of the War Office Committee of enquiry into “Shell-shock.” , London : His Majesty's Stationary Office .
   Google Scholar
• Whalen , R. W . 1984 . Bitter wounds: German victims of the Great War, 1914–1939 , Ithaca : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wilmanns , K. 1929 . “ 6. Vortrag ” . In Reichsarbeitsministerium (1929), Die “Unfall-(Kriegs-)Neurose”: Vorträge und Erörterungen gelegentlich eines Lehrgang für Versorgungsärzte im Reichsarbeidsministerium vom 6.-8. März 1929 , 72 – 82 . Berlin : Reimar Hobbing .
   Google Scholar
• Wiltshire , H. 1916 . A contribution to the etiology of shell shock . The Lancet , : 1207 – 1212 . June 17
   Google Scholar
• Winter , D. 1979 . Death's men: Soldiers of the Great War , Harmondsworth : Penguin Books .
   Google Scholar
• Wittkower , E. and Spillane , J. P . 1940 . “ A survey of the literature of neuroses in war ” . In The neuroses in war , Edited by: Miller , E. 1 – 32 . London : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 1992 . ICD-10 , Geneva : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Wright , H. P . 1917 . Suggestions for a further classification of so-called shell shock . Canadian Medical Association Journal , 7 : 629 – 635 .
   Google Scholar
• Young , A. 1995 . The harmony of illusions: Inventing post-traumatic stress disorder , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar