“Good Girls,” Sexy “Bad Girls,” and Warriors: The Role of Trauma and Dissociation in the Creation and Reproduction of Gender

REFERENCES

• Allport , G. W. 1954 . The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA : Addison-Wesley. .
   Google Scholar
• Asher , S. J. 1988 . “ The effects of childhood sexual abuse: A review of the issues and evidence. ” . In Handbook of sexual abuse of children. Edited by: Walker , L. E.A. New York : Springer Publishing Company. .
   Google Scholar
• de Beauvoir , S . 1953 . The second sex. New York : Alfred A. Knopf .
   Google Scholar
• Belenky , M. F. , Clinchy , B. M. , Goldberger , N. R. and Tarule , J. M. 1986 . Women's ways of knowing. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Bem , S. L. 1983 . Gender schema theory and its implications for child development: Raising gender-aschematic children in a gender-schematic society. . Signs , 8 : 367 – 389 .
   Google Scholar
• Benatar , M. 2000 . A qualitative study of the effect of a history of childhood sexual abuse on therapists who treat survivors of sexual abuse. . Journal of Trauma and Dissociation , 1 ( 3 ) : 9 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Betcher , R. W. and Pollack , W. S. 1993 . In a time of fallen heroes. New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Blizard , R. A. 1997 . The origins of dissociative identity disorder from an object relations theory and attachment theory perspective. . Dissociation , 10 ( 4 ) : 246 – 254 .
   Google Scholar
• Blizard , R. A. 2001 . Masochistic and sadistic ego states: Dissociative solutions to the dilemma of attachment to an abusive caretaker. . Journal of Trauma and Dissociation , 2 ( 4 ) : 37 – 58 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Block , J. B . 1984 . Sex role identity and ego development. San Francisco : Josey Bass. .
   Google Scholar
• Block , J. H. 1973 . Conceptions of sex role. . American Psychologist , 28 : 512 – 526 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohan , J. S. 1993 . Regarding gender: essentialism, constructionism, and feminist psychology. . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 17 : 5 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boney-McCoy , S. and Finkelhor , D. 1995 . Psychosocial sequelae of violent victimization in a national youth sample. . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 63 : 726 – 736 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boney-McCoy , S. and Finkelhor , D. 1996 . Is youth victimization related to trauma symptoms and depression after controlling for prior symptoms and family relationships? A longitudinal, prospective study. . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 64 : 1406 – 1416 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braebeck , M. M. 1989 . Theory, research, and educational implications of the ethic of care. New York : Praeger. .
   Google Scholar
• Brannon , R. 1976 . “ The male sex role: Our culture's blueprint for manhood, what it's done for us lately. ” . In The forty-nine percept majority: The male sex role Edited by: David , D. and Brannon , R. 1 – 48 . Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley. .
   Google Scholar
• Breedlove , S. M. 1994 . Sexual differentiation of the human nervous system. . Annual Review of Psychology , 45 : 389 – 418 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks , G. R. and Silverstein , L. B . 1995 . “ Understanding the dark side of masculinity: An interactive systems model. ” . In A new psychology of men Edited by: Levant , R. F. and Pollack , W. S. 280 – 336 . New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , L. S. 1991 . Not outside the range: One feminist perspective on psychic trauma. . American Imago , 48 : 119 – 133 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , L. S. 1992 . “ A feminist critique of the personality disorders. ” . In Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals Edited by: Brown , L. S. and Ballou , M. 206 – 228 . New York : Guilford. .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , L. M. and Gilligan , C. 1992 . Meeting at the crossroads. New York : Ballantine Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Brownmiller , S. 1975 . Against our will: Men, women, and rape. New York : Simon and Schuster. .
   Google Scholar
• Broverman , I. K. , Broverman , D. M. , Clarkson , F. E. , Rosenkrantz , P. S. and Vogel , S. R. 1970 . Sex-role stereotypes and clinical judgments of mental health. . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 34 : 1 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chodorow , N. 1971 . "Being and doing": A cross cultural examination of the socialization of males and females. ” . In Women in sexist society: Studies in power and powerlessness Edited by: Gornick , V. and Moran , B. K. 173 – 197 . New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Chodorow , N. 1974 . “ Family structure and feminine personality. ” . In Woman, culture and society Edited by: Rosaldo , M. Z. and Lamphere , L. 43 – 66 . Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Chodorow , N. 1978 . The reproduction of mothering. Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Chu , J. A. 1998 . Rebuilding shattered lives. New York : John Wiley & Sons. .
   Google Scholar
• Chu , J. A. 2001 . A decline in the abuse of children? . Journal of Trauma and Dissociation , 2 ( 2 ) : 1 – 4 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clopton , N. and Sorell , G. 1993 . Gender differences in moral reasoning: Stable or situational? . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 17 : 85 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coates , S. W. and Moore , M. S. 1997 . The complexity of early trauma: Representation and transformation. . Psychoanalytic Inquiry , 17 : 286 – 311 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colapinto , J. 2000 . As nature made him: The boy who was raised as a girl. New York : Harper Collins. .
   Google Scholar
• Copjec , J. 1994 . Read my desire. Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Danieli , Y. 1985 . “ The treatment and prevention of long-term effects and inter-generational transmission of victimization: A lesson from holocaust survivors and their children. ” . In The study and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder Edited by: Figley , C. R. 295 – 313 . New York : Bruner/Mazel. .
   Google Scholar
• Davies , J. M. and Frawley , M. G. 1994 . Treating the adult survivor of childhood sexual abuse. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Diamond , M. and Sigmundson , H. K. 1997 . Sex reassignment at birth: A long term review and clinical implications. . Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine , 151 : 298 – 304 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dinnerstein , D. 1976 . The mermaid and the Minotaur. New York : Harper and Row. .
   Google Scholar
• Dutton , D. G. and with Gollant , S. K. 1995 . The batterer: A psychological profile. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Dyess , C. and Dean , T. 2000 . Gender: The impossibility of meaning. . Psychoanalytic Dialogues , 10 : 735 – 756 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espin , O. M. and Gawelek , M. A. 1992 . “ Women's diversity: Ethnicity, race, class, and gender in theories of feminist psychology. ” . In Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals Edited by: Brown , L. S. and Ballou , M. 88 – 108 . New York : Guilford. .
   Google Scholar
• Ferenczi , S. 1949 . Confusion of tongues between the adult and the child. . International Journal of Psycho-Analysis , 30 : 225 – 231 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelhor , D. 1984 . Child sexual abuse: New theory and research. New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Finkelhor , D. 1990 . Early and long term effects of child sexual abuse: an update. . Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , 21 : 325 – 330 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelhor , D. and Dziuba-Leatherman , J. 1994 . Victimization of children. . The American Psychologist , 49 : 173 – 183 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald , L. F. 1993 . Sexual harassment: Violence against women in the workplace. . American Psychologist , 48 : 1070 – 1076 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fivush , R. 1989 . Exploring sex differences in the emotional content of mother-child conversations about the past. . Sex Roles , 20 : 675 – 691 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freyd , J. J. 1996 . Betrayal trauma: The logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Friedan , B. 1963 . The feminine mystique. New York : Dell. .
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs , D. and Thelen , M. H. 1988 . Children's expected interpersonal consequences of communicating their affective state and reported likelihood of expression. . Child Development , 59 : 1314 – 1322 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gartner , R. B. 1999 . Betrayed as boys. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Giddings , P. 1984 . When and where I enter: The impact of black women on race and sex in America. New York : Bantam. .
   Google Scholar
• Gilligan , C. 1982 . In a different voice. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gilligan , C. and Attanuccu , J. 1988 . “ Two moral orientations. ” . In Mapping the moral domain: A contribution of women's thinking to psychological theory and education Edited by: Gilligan , C. , Ward , C. J. , Taylor , J. M. and Bartage , B. 73 – 86 . Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Grand , S. 1997 . On the gendering of traumatic dissociation: A case of mother-son incest. . Gender and Psychoanalysis , 1 : 55 – 77 .
   Google Scholar
• Greenson , R. R. 1968 . Dis-identifying from mother: Its special importance for the boy. . International Journal of Psycho-analysis , 49 : 370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hacker , H. M. 1981 . “ Women as a minority group. ” . In Female psychology: The emerging self Edited by: Cox , S. 164 – 178 . New York : St. Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• Halpern , D. F. 1997 . Sex differences in intelligence: implications for education. . American Psychologist , 52 : 1091 – 1102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hare-Mustin , R. T. and Marecek , J. 1988 . The meaning of difference: gender theory, postmodernism, and psychology. . American Psychologist , 43 : 455 – 462 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hare-Mustin , R. T. and Marecek , J. 1990 . “ Gender and the meaning of difference: Postmodernism and psychology. ” . In Making a difference: Psychology and the construction of gender Edited by: Hare-Mustin , R. T. and Marecek , J. 22 – 64 . New Haven : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Herek , G. M. 1987 . “ On heterosexual masculinity: Some psychical consequences of the social construction of gender and sexual orientation. ” . In Changing men: New directions in research on men and masculinity Edited by: Kimmel , M. S. 68 – 82 . Newbury Park, CA : Sage Press .
   Google Scholar
• Herman , J. L. and with Hirschman , L. 1981 . Father-daughter incest. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Herman , J. L. 1992 . Trauma and recovery. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Hooks , B. 1984 . Feminist theory: From margin to center. Boston : South End Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hooks , B. 1989 . Talking back: Thinking feminist, thinking black. Boston : South End Press .
   Google Scholar
• Horney , K. 1934 . The overvaluation of love. . Psychoanalytic Quarterly, III , : 605 – 638 .
   Google Scholar
• Howell , E. F. 1975 . Self presentation in reference to sex role stereotypes as related to level of moral development New York University . Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
   Google Scholar
• Howell , E. F. 1981 . “ Women: from Freud to the present. ” . In Women and mental health Edited by: Howell , E. and Bayes , M. 3 – 25 . New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Howell , E. F. (in press). Back to the “states”: Victim and abuser states in borderline personality disorder. . Psychoanalytic Dialogues. ,
   Google Scholar
• Hoyenga , K. B. and Hoyenga , K. T. 1993 . Gender-related differences. Needham Heights, MA : Allyn and Bacon. .
   Google Scholar
• Hudson , L. and Jacot , B. 1991 . The way men think: Intellect, intimacy, and the erotic imagination. New Haven : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hurtado , A. 1989 . Relating to privilege: Seduction and rejection in the subordination of white women and women of color. . Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 14 : 833 – 855 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan , J. V. , Kaplan , A. G. , Miller , J. B. , Stiver , I. P. and Surry , J. L. 1991 . Women's growth in connection. New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kemelgor , C. and Etzowitz , H. 2001 . Overcoming isolation: women's dilemmas in American academic sciences. . Minerva , 39 : 239 – 257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilmartin , C. T. 1994 . The masculine self. New York : MacMillan Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kohlberg , L. 1966 . “ A cognitive-development analysis of children's sex-role concepts and attitudes. ” . In The development of sex differences Edited by: Maccoby , E. E. 82 – 173 . Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Koss , M. P. 1993 . Rape: Scope, impact, interventions and public policy responses. . American Psychologist , 48 : 1062 – 1069 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krugman , S. 1995 . “ Male development and the transformation of shame. ” . In A new psychology of men. Edited by: Levant , R. F. and Pollack , W. S. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Landrine , H. 1989 . The politics of personality disorder. . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 13 : 325 – 339 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Layton , L. 1998 . Who's that girl? Who's that boy? Clinical practice meets postmodern gender theory. Northvale, NJ : Jason Aronson. .
   Google Scholar
• Lerman , H. 1986 . From Freud to feminist personality theory: Getting there from here. . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 7 : 313 – 328 .
   Google Scholar
• Lerner , H. E. 1982 . “ Special issues of women in psychotherapy. ” . In The woman patient, vol. 3: Aggression, adaptations, and psychotherapy Edited by: Notman , M. T. and Nadelson , C. C. 273 – 286 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Levant , R. F. 1995 . “ Toward a reconstruction of masculinity. ” . In A new psychology of men Edited by: Levant , R. F. and Pollack , W. S. 229 – 251 . New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Little , L. and Hamby , S. L. 1999 . Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. , 30 : 378 – 385 . 4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lisak , D. , Hopper , J. and Song , P. 1996 . Factors in the cycle of violence: Gender rigidity and emotional constriction. . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 4 : 721 – 743 .
   Google Scholar
• Lott , B. 1990 . “ Dual natures or learned behaviors? ” . In Making a difference: Psychology and the construction of gender Edited by: Hare-Mustin , R. T. and Marecek , J. 65 – 101 . New Haven : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Maccoby , E. E. 1966 . “ Sex differences in intellectual functioning. In. ” . In The development of sex differences Edited by: Maccoby , E. E. 25 – 55 . Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Maccoby , E. E. 1990 . Gender and relationships: A developmental account. . American Psychologist , 45 : 513 – 520 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahler , M. S. , Pine , F. and Bergman , A. 1975 . The psychological birth of the human infant. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Mednick , M. T. 1989 . On the politics of psychological constructs: Stop the bandwagon, I want to get off. . American Psychologist , 44 : 1118 – 1123 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mill , J. S. 1972 . Feminism: The essential historical writings Edited by: Schneir , M. 162 – 178 . New York : Vintage. . /1869). The subjection of women. In
   Google Scholar
• Miller , J. B. 1976 . Toward a new psychology of women. Boston : Beacon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. R.S. , Spinhoven , P. , Van Dyck , R. and van der Hart , O. 1998 . Degree of somatoform and psychological dissociation in dissociative disorder is correlated with reported trauma. . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 711 – 730 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis , E. R.S. , Vanderlinden , J. and Spinhoven , P. 1998 . Animal defensive reactions as a model for trauma-induced dissociative reaction. . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 243 – 260 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry , B. D. 1999 . “ Neurodevelopment and dissociation: Trauma and adaptive responses to fear. ” . In Plenary paper presented at the 17th International Fall Conference of the International Society for the Study of Dissociation, November 14, 2000
   Google Scholar
• Perry , B. D. 2000 . “ The memories of states: How the brain stores and retrieves traumatic experience. ” . In Images of the body in trauma Edited by: Goodwin , J. M. and Attias , R. A. 9 – 38 . New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Pinker , S. 1994 . The language instinct. New York : Harper Collins. .
   Google Scholar
• Pleck , J. H. 1995 . “ The gender role strain paradigm: an update. ” . In A new psychology of men Edited by: Levant , R. F. and Pollack , W. S. 11 – 32 . New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Pollack , W. S. 1995 . “ No man is an island: a new psychoanalytic psychology of men. ” . In A new psychology of men Edited by: Levant , R. F. and Pollack , W. S. 33 – 67 . New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Pollack , W. S. 1998 . Real boys. New York : Random House. .
   Google Scholar
• Profitt , N. J. 2000 . Psychological trauma, and the politics of resistance. Binghamton, NY : The Haworth Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Putnam , F. W. 1997 . Dissociation in children and adolescents. New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Raine , N. V. 1998 . After silence: Rape and my journey back. New York : Crown Publishers. .
   Google Scholar
• Rivera , M. 1989 . Linking the psychological and the social: feminism, poststructuralism and multiple personality. . Dissociation , 2 ( 1 ) : 24 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Rivera , M. 1988 . Am I a boy or girl? Multiple personality as a window on gender differences. . Resources for Feminist Research/Documentation sur la recherche féministe , 17 ( 2 ) : 41 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Romano , E. and de Luca , R. V. 1997 . Exploring the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and adult sexual perpetration. . Journal of Family Violence , 12 ( 1 ) : 85 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Root , M. P. 1992 . “ Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. ” . In Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals Edited by: Brown , L. S. and Ballou , M. 229 – 265 . New York : Guilford. .
   Google Scholar
• Russell , D. E.H. 1986 . The secret trauma: Incest in the lives of girls and women. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Schafer , R. 1974 . Problems in Freud's psychology of women. . Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association , 22 : 459 – 485 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schetky , D. H. 1990 . “ A review of the literature on the long-term effects of childhood sexual abuse. ” . In Incest-related syndromes of adult psychopathology Edited by: Kluft , R. P. 35 – 54 . Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schore , A. N. 1997 . Affect regulation and the origin of the self. New York : Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. .
   Google Scholar
• Shainess , N. 1970 . “ A psychiatrist's view: Images of women-past and present, overt and obscured. ” . In Sisterhood is powerful: An anthology of writings from the women's liberation movement Edited by: Morgan , R. 230 – 244 . New York : Vintage Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Shusta , S. R. 1999 . Successful treatment of refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. . American Journal of Psychotherapy , 53 : 372 – 391 .
   Google Scholar
• Spiegel , D. 1990 . “ Trauma, dissociation, and hypnosis. ” . In Incest-related syndromes of adult psychopathology Edited by: Kluft , R. P. 247 – 262 . Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stern , D. 1985 . The interpersonal world of the infant. New York : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Stern , D. B. 2000 . The limits of social construction: Commentary on paper by Cynthia Dyess and Tim Dean. . Psychoanalytic Dialogues , 10 : 757 – 769 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoller , R. J. 1974 . Symbiosis anxiety-The development of masculinity. . Archives of General Psychiatry , 30 : 164 – 172 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stoller , R. J. 1985 . Presentations of gender. New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stoller , R. J. and Herdt , G. 1985 . “ The development of masculinity: A cross-cultural contribution. ” . In Presentations of gender Edited by: Stoller , R. 181 – 199 . New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Thompson , C. 1942 . Cultural pressures in the psychology of women. . Psychiatry , 5 : 331 – 339 .
   Google Scholar
• Unger , R. K. 1990 . “ Imperfect reflections of reality: Psychology constructs gender. ” . In Making a difference: Psychology and the construction of gender Edited by: Hare-Mustin , R. and Marecek , J. 102 – 149 . New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Unger , R. K. and Crawford , M. 1992 . Women and gender: A feminist psychology. New York : McGraw Hill. .
   Google Scholar
• Waites , E. A. 1993 . Trauma and survival: post-traumatic and dissociative disorders in women4. New York : Norton. .
   Google Scholar