2,293
Views
65
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy of gastroparesis: current and future perspectives

, BPharm (Hons) BSc PhD, , DipAppSci (Nuc Med) PhD, , MBBS PhD FRACP & , MBBS PhD FRACP
Pages 1171-1186 | Published online: 11 May 2013

Bibliography

  • Parkman HP, Hasler WL, Fisher RS. American Gastroenterological Association technical review on the diagnosis and treatment of gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 2004;127:1592-622
  • Khoo J, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. Pathophysiology and management of gastroparesis. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;3:167-81
  • Horowitz M, Maddox AF, Wishart JM, et al. Relationships between oesophageal transit and solid and liquid gastric emptying in diabetes mellitus. Eur J Nucl Med 1991;18:229-34
  • Stanghellini V, Tosetti C, Paternico A, et al. Risk indicators of delayed gastric emptying of solids in patients with functional dyspepsia. Gastroenterology 1996;110:1036-42
  • Hasler WL. Management of gastroparesis. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;2:411-23
  • Chang J, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. Diabetic gastroparesis-backwards and forwards. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;26(Suppl 1):46-57
  • Soykan I, Sivri B, Sarosiek I, et al. Demography, clinical characteristics, psychological and abuse profiles, treatment, and long-term follow-up of patients with gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 1998;43:2398-404
  • Hasler WL, Wilson LA, Parkman HP, et al. Bloating in gastroparesis: severity, impact, and associated factors. Am J Gastroenterol 2011;106:1492-502
  • Cheng LK, O'Grady G, Du P, et al. Gastrointestinal system. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med 2010;2:65-79
  • Lin HC, Doty JE, Reedy TJ, Meyer JH. Inhibition of gastric emptying by glucose depends on length of intestine exposed to nutrient. Am J Physiol 1989;256:G404-11
  • Malbert CH, Mathis C. Antropyloric modulation of transpyloric flow of liquids in pigs. Gastroenterology 1994;107:37-46
  • Chapman MJ, Besanko LK, Burgstad CM, et al. Gastric emptying of a liquid nutrient meal in the critically ill: relationship between scintigraphic and carbon breath test measurement. Gut 2011;60:1336-43
  • Parkman HP, Yates K, Hasler WL, et al. Similarities and differences between diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;9:1056-64; quiz e133-4
  • Jung HK, Choung RS, Locke GR, et al. The incidence, prevalence, and outcomes of patients with gastroparesis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, from 1996 to 2006. Gastroenterology 2009;136:1225-33
  • Jones KL, Russo A, Stevens JE, et al. Predictors of delayed gastric emptying in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001;24:1264-9
  • Wang YR, Fisher RS, Parkman HP. Gastroparesis-related hospitalizations in the United States: trends, characteristics, and outcomes, 1995-2004. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:313-22
  • Jones KL, Horowitz M, Wishart MJ, et al. Relationships between gastric emptying, intragastric meal distribution and blood glucose concentrations in diabetes mellitus. J Nucl Med 1995;36:2220-8
  • Urbain JL, Vekemans MC, Bouillon R, et al. Characterization of gastric antral motility disturbances in diabetes using a scintigraphic technique. J Nucl Med 1993;34:576-81
  • Bharucha AE, Camilleri M, Forstrom LA, et al. Relationship between clinical features and gastric emptying disturbances in diabetes mellitus. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009;70:415-20
  • Phillips WT, Schwartz JG, McMahan CA. Rapid gastric emptying of an oral glucose solution in type 2 diabetic patients. J Nucl Med 1992;33:1496-500
  • Chang J, Rayner CK, Jones KL, et al. Prognosis of diabetic gastroparesis-a 25-year evaluation. Diabet Med 2013;30(5):e185-8
  • Chang J, Russo A, Bound M, et al. A 25-year longitudinal evaluation of gastric emptying in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2012;35:2594-6
  • Grover M, Farrugia G, Lurken MS, et al. Cellular changes in diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 2011;140:1575-85; e8
  • Grover M, Bernard CE, Pasricha PJ, et al. Clinical-histological associations in gastroparesis: results from the Gastroparesis Clinical Research Consortium. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;24:531-9, e249
  • Faussone-Pellegrini MS, Grover M, Pasricha PJ, et al. Ultrastructural differences between diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis. J Cell Mol Med 2012;16:1573-81
  • Pasricha PJ, Pehlivanov ND, Gomez G, et al. Changes in the gastric enteric nervous system and muscle: a case report on two patients with diabetic gastroparesis. BMC Gastroenterol 2008;8:21
  • Choi KM, Gibbons SJ, Nguyen TV, et al. Heme oxygenase-1 protects interstitial cells of Cajal from oxidative stress and reverses diabetic gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 2008;135:2055-64; 2064 e1-2
  • Chen JD, Lin Z, Pan J, et al. Abnormal gastric myoelectrical activity and delayed gastric emptying in patients with symptoms suggestive of gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 1996;41:1538-45
  • Karamanolis G, Caenepeel P, Arts J, Tack J. Determinants of symptom pattern in idiopathic severely delayed gastric emptying: gastric emptying rate or proximal stomach dysfunction? Gut 2007;56:29-36
  • Mearin F, Camilleri M, Malagelada JR. Pyloric dysfunction in diabetics with recurrent nausea and vomiting. Gastroenterology 1986;90:1919-25
  • Samsom M, Roelofs JM, Akkermans LM, et al. Proximal gastric motor activity in response to a liquid meal in type I diabetes mellitus with autonomic neuropathy. Dig Dis Sci 1998;43:491-6
  • Tougas G, Hunt RH, Fitzpatrick D, et al. Evidence of impaired afferent vagal function in patients with diabetes gastroparesis. Pacing Clin electrophysiol 1992;15:1597-602
  • Fraser RJ, Horowitz M, Maddox AF, et al. Hyperglycaemia slows gastric emptying in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 1990;33:675-80
  • Schvarcz E, Palmer M, Aman J, et al. Physiological hyperglycemia slows gastric emptying in normal subjects and patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology 1997;113:60-6
  • Jones KL, Berry M, Kong MF, et al. Hyperglycemia attenuates the gastrokinetic effect of erythromycin and affects the perception of postprandial hunger in normal subjects. Diabetes Care 1999;22:339-44
  • Petrakis IE, Chalkiadakis G, Vrachassotakis N, et al. Induced-hyperglycemia attenuates erythromycin-induced acceleration of hypertonic liquid-phase gastric emptying in type-I diabetic patients. Dig Dis 1999;17:241-7
  • Russo A, Stevens JE, Chen R, et al. Insulin-induced hypoglycemia accelerates gastric emptying of solids and liquids in long-standing type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:4489-95
  • Cherian D, Sachdeva P, Fisher RS, et al. Abdominal pain is a frequent symptom of gastroparesis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8:676-81
  • Owyang C. Phenotypic switching in diabetic gastroparesis: mechanism directs therapy. Gastroenterology 2011;141:1134-7
  • Lennernas H. Ethanol-drug absorption interaction: potential for a significant effect on the plasma pharmacokinetics of ethanol vulnerable formulations. Mol Pharm 2009;6:1429-40
  • Horowitz M, Maddox A, Bochner M, et al. Relationships between gastric emptying of solid and caloric liquid meals and alcohol absorption. Am J Physiol 1989;257:G291-8
  • Hebbard GS, Sun WM, Bochner F, et al. Pharmacokinetic considerations in gastrointestinal motor disorders. Clin Pharmacokinet 1995;28:41-66
  • Ma J, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. Insulin secretion in healthy subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes–role of the gastrointestinal tract. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;23:413-24
  • Horowitz M, Edelbroek MA, Wishart JM, Straathof JW. Relationship between oral glucose tolerance and gastric emptying in normal healthy subjects. Diabetologia 1993;36:857-62
  • Jones KL, Horowitz M, Carney BI, et al. Gastric emptying in early noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Nucl Med 1996;37:1643-8
  • Ishii M, Nakamura T, Kasai F, et al. Altered postprandial insulin requirement in IDDM patients with gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1994;17:901-3
  • Horowitz M, Jones KL, Rayner CK, Read NW. 'Gastric' hypoglycaemia – an important concept in diabetes management. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2006;18:405-7
  • Monnier L, Lapinski H, Colette C. Contributions of fasting and postprandial plasma glucose increments to the overall diurnal hyperglycemia of type 2 diabetic patients: variations with increasing levels of HbA(1c). Diabetes Care 2003;26:881-5
  • Gerich JE. Clinical significance, pathogenesis, and management of postprandial hyperglycemia. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1306-16
  • Drucker DJ, Nauck MA. The incretin system: glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes. Lancet 2006;368:1696-705
  • Little TJ, Pilichiewicz AN, Russo A, et al. Effects of intravenous glucagon-like peptide-1 on gastric emptying and intragastric distribution in healthy subjects: relationships with postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:1916-23
  • Verdich C, Flint A, Gutzwiller JP, et al. A meta-analysis of the effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide on ad libitum energy intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:4382-9
  • Garber AJ. Incretin effects on beta-cell function, replication, and mass: the human perspective. Diabetes Care 2011;34(Suppl 2):S258-63
  • Meier JJ, Goetze O, Anstipp J, et al. Gastric inhibitory polypeptide does not inhibit gastric emptying in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004;286:E621-5
  • Nauck MA, Heimesaat MM, Orskov C, et al. Preserved incretin activity of glucagon-like peptide 1 [7-36 amide] but not of synthetic human gastric inhibitory polypeptide in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest 1993;91:301-7
  • Hojberg PV, Vilsboll T, Rabol R, et al. Four weeks of near-normalisation of blood glucose improves the insulin response to glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2009;52:199-207
  • Gonlachanvit S, Hsu CW, Boden GH, et al. Effect of altering gastric emptying on postprandial plasma glucose concentrations following a physiologic meal in type-II diabetic patients. Dig Dis Sci 2003;48:488-97
  • Russo A, Stevens JE, Wilson T, et al. Guar attenuates fall in postprandial blood pressure and slows gastric emptying of oral glucose in type 2 diabetes. Dig Dis Sci 2003;48:1221-9
  • Gentilcore D, Chaikomin R, Jones KL, et al. Effects of fat on gastric emptying of and the glycemic, insulin, and incretin responses to a carbohydrate meal in type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:2062-7
  • Ma J, Stevens JE, Cukier K, et al. Effects of a protein preload on gastric emptying, glycemia, and gut hormones after a carbohydrate meal in diet-controlled type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1600-2
  • Linnebjerg H, Park S, Kothare PA, et al. Effect of exenatide on gastric emptying and relationship to postprandial glycemia in type 2 diabetes. Regul Pept 2008;151:123-9
  • Nauck MA, Kemmeries G, Holst JJ, Meier JJ. Rapid tachyphylaxis of the glucagon-like peptide 1-induced deceleration of gastric emptying in humans. Diabetes 2011;60:1561-5
  • Flint A, Kapitza C, Hindsberger C, Zdravkovic M. The once-daily human glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analog liraglutide improves postprandial glucose levels in type 2 diabetes patients. Adv Ther 2011;28:213-26
  • Marathe CS, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M, et al. Review: relationships between gastric emptying, postprandial glycemia and incretin hormones. Diabetes Care 2012; In press
  • Woerle H, Lindenberger T, Linke R, et al. A single dose of vildagliptin (VILDA) decelerates gastric emptying (GE) in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) [abstract]. American Diabetes Association, 67th Scientific Sessions; 2007. p. 500-P
  • Vella A, Bock G, Giesler PD, et al. Effects of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibition on gastrointestinal function, meal appearance, and glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2007;56:1475-80
  • Stevens JE, Horowitz M, Deacon CF, et al. The effects of sitagliptin on gastric emptying in healthy humans - a randomised, controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012;36:379-90
  • Abell TL, Bernstein RK, Cutts T, et al. Treatment of gastroparesis: a multidisciplinary clinical review. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2006;18:263-83
  • Sharma D, Morrison G, Joseph F, et al. The role of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion therapy in patients with diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetologia 2011;54:2768-70
  • Tonini M, Cipollina L, Poluzzi E, et al. Review article: clinical implications of enteric and central D2 receptor blockade by antidopaminergic gastrointestinal prokinetics. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004;19:379-90
  • Lata PF, Pigarelli DL. Chronic metoclopramide therapy for diabetic gastroparesis. Ann Pharmacother 2003;37:122-6
  • Pasricha PJ, Pehlivanov N, Sugumar A, Jankovic J. Drug insight: from disturbed motility to disordered movement – a review of the clinical benefits and medicolegal risks of metoclopramide. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;3:138-48
  • Rao AS, Camilleri M. Review article: metoclopramide and tardive dyskinesia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010;31:11-19
  • Sugumar A, Singh A, Pasricha PJ. A systematic review of the efficacy of domperidone for the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;6:726-33
  • Patterson D, Abell T, Rothstein R, et al. A double-blind multicenter comparison of domperidone and metoclopramide in the treatment of diabetic patients with symptoms of gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:1230-4
  • Horowitz M, Harding PE, Chatterton BE, et al. Acute and chronic effects of domperidone on gastric emptying in diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Dig Dis Sci 1985;30:1-9
  • Larson JM, Tavakkoli A, Drane WE, et al. Advantages of azithromycin over erythromycin in improving the gastric emptying half-time in adult patients with gastroparesis. J Neurogastroenterol Motil 2010;16:407-13
  • McCallum RW, Ricci DA, Rakatansky H, et al. A multicenter placebo-controlled clinical trial of oral metoclopramide in diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1983;6:463-7
  • Perkel MS, Moore C, Hersh T, Davidson ED. Metoclopramide therapy in patients with delayed gastric emptying: a randomized, double-blind study. Dig Dis Sci 1979;24:662-6
  • Ricci DA, Saltzman MB, Meyer C, et al. Effect of metoclopramide in diabetic gastroparesis. J Clin Gastroenterol 1985;7:25-32
  • Snape WJ Jr, Battle WM, Schwartz SS, et al. Metoclopramide to treat gastroparesis due to diabetes mellitus: a double-blind, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1982;96:444-6
  • Dumitrascu DL, Weinbeck M. Domperidone versus metoclopramide in the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:316-17
  • Erbas T, Varoglu E, Erbas B, et al. Comparison of metoclopramide and erythromycin in the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1993;16:1511-14
  • Longstreth GF, Malagelada JR, Kelly KA. Metoclopramide stimulation of gastric motility and emptying in diabetic gastroparesis. Ann Intern Med 1977;86:195-6
  • Loo FD, Palmer DW, Soergel KH, et al. Gastric emptying in patients with diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology 1984;86:485-94
  • Sturm A, Holtmann G, Goebell H, Gerken G. Prokinetics in patients with gastroparesis: a systematic analysis. Digestion 1999;60:422-7
  • Talley NJ, Verlinden M, Geenen DJ, et al. Effects of a motilin receptor agonist (ABT-229) on upper gastrointestinal symptoms in type 1 diabetes mellitus: a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial. Gut 2001;49:395-401
  • Talley NJ, Verlinden M, Snape W, et al. Failure of a motilin receptor agonist (ABT-229) to relieve the symptoms of functional dyspepsia in patients with and without delayed gastric emptying: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2000;14:1653-61
  • Russo A, Stevens JE, Giles N, et al. Effect of the motilin agonist KC 11458 on gastric emptying in diabetic gastroparesis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004;20:333-8
  • McCallum RW, Cynshi O. Clinical trial: effect of mitemcinal (a motilin agonist) on gastric emptying in patients with gastroparesis - a randomized, multicentre, placebo-controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007;26:1121-30
  • Murray CD, Martin NM, Patterson M, et al. Ghrelin enhances gastric emptying in diabetic gastroparesis: a double blind, placebo controlled, crossover study. Gut 2005;54:1693-8
  • Tack J, Depoortere I, Bisschops R, et al. Influence of ghrelin on gastric emptying and meal-related symptoms in idiopathic gastroparesis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005;22:847-53
  • Ejskjaer N, Vestergaard ET, Hellstrom PM, et al. Ghrelin receptor agonist (TZP-101) accelerates gastric emptying in adults with diabetes and symptomatic gastroparesis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009;29:1179-87
  • Ejskjaer N, Dimcevski G, Wo J, et al. Safety and efficacy of ghrelin agonist TZP-101 in relieving symptoms in patients with diabetic gastroparesis: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2010;22:1069-e281
  • Shin A, Camilleri M, Busciglio I, et al. Randomized controlled phase Ib study of ghrelin agonist, RM-131, in type 2 diabetic women with delayed gastric emptying: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Diabetes Care 2012; In press
  • Degen L, Petrig C, Studer D, et al. Effect of tegaserod on gut transit in male and female subjects. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2005;17:821-6
  • Hammerle CW, Surawicz CM. Updates on treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:2639-49
  • Mackie AD, Ferrington C, Cowan S, et al. The effects of renzapride, a novel prokinetic agent, in diabetic gastroparesis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1991;5:135-42
  • Bouras EP, Camilleri M, Burton DD, et al. Prucalopride accelerates gastrointestinal and colonic transit in patients with constipation without a rectal evacuation disorder. Gastroenterology 2001;120:354-60
  • Camilleri M, Vazquez-Roque MI, Burton D, et al. Pharmacodynamic effects of a novel prokinetic 5-HT receptor agonist, ATI-7505, in humans. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2007;19:30-8
  • Manini ML, Camilleri M, Goldberg M, et al. Effects of velusetrag (TD-5108) on gastrointestinal transit and bowel function in health and pharmacokinetics in health and constipation. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2010;22:42-9; e7-8
  • Mansi C, Borro P, Giacomini M, et al. Comparative effects of levosulpiride and cisapride on gastric emptying and symptoms in patients with functional dyspepsia and gastroparesis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2000;14:561-9
  • Iwanaga Y, Kimura T, Miyashita N, et al. Characterization of acetylcholinesterase-inhibition by itopride. Jpn J Pharmacol 1994;66:317-22
  • Stevens JE, Russo A, Maddox AF, et al. Effect of itopride on gastric emptying in longstanding diabetes mellitus. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2008;20:456-63
  • Holtmann G, Talley NJ, Liebregts T, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of itopride in functional dyspepsia. N Engl J Med 2006;354:832-40
  • Nagahama K, Matsunaga Y, Kawachi M, et al. Acotiamide, a new orally active acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, stimulates gastrointestinal motor activity in conscious dogs. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;24:566-74; e256
  • Kawachi M, Matsunaga Y, Tanaka T, et al. Acotiamide hydrochloride (Z-338) enhances gastric motility and emptying by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2011;666:218-25
  • Kusunoki H, Haruma K, Manabe N, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of acotiamide in patients with functional dyspepsia based on enhanced postprandial gastric accommodation and emptying: randomized controlled study evaluation by real-time ultrasonography. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;24:540-5; e250-1
  • Lucey MA, Patil V, Girling K, et al. Does neostigmine increase gastric emptying in the critically ill? Results of a pilot study. Crit Care Resusc 2003;5:14-19
  • Bharucha AE, Low P, Camilleri M, et al. A randomised controlled study of the effect of cholinesterase inhibition on colon function in patients with diabetes mellitus and constipation. Gut 2013;62(5):708-15
  • Malagelada JR, Rees WD, Mazzotta LJ, et al. Gastric motor abnormalities in diabetic and postvagotomy gastroparesis: effect of metoclopramide and bethanechol. Gastroenterology 1980;78:286-93
  • Omari TI, Benninga MA, Sansom L, et al. Effect of baclofen on esophagogastric motility and gastroesophageal reflux in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Pediatr 2006;149:468-74
  • Esfandyari T, Camilleri M, Ferber I, et al. Effect of a cannabinoid agonist on gastrointestinal transit and postprandial satiation in healthy human subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2006;18:831-8
  • Di Marzo V, Capasso R, Matias I, et al. The role of endocannabinoids in the regulation of gastric emptying: alterations in mice fed a high-fat diet. Br J Pharmacol 2008;153:1272-80
  • Lacy BE, Crowell MD, Schettler-Duncan A, et al. The treatment of diabetic gastroparesis with botulinum toxin injection of the pylorus. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2341-7
  • Arts J, Holvoet L, Caenepeel P, et al. Clinical trial: a randomized-controlled crossover study of intrapyloric injection of botulinum toxin in gastroparesis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007;26:1251-8
  • Arts J, van Gool S, Caenepeel P, et al. Influence of intrapyloric botulinum toxin injection on gastric emptying and meal-related symptoms in gastroparesis patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2006;24:661-7
  • Friedenberg FK, Palit A, Parkman HP, et al. Botulinum toxin A for the treatment of delayed gastric emptying. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:416-23
  • McCallum RW, Chen JD, Lin Z, et al. Gastric pacing improves emptying and symptoms in patients with gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 1998;114:456-61
  • Lin Z, Forster J, Sarosiek I, McCallum RW. Treatment of diabetic gastroparesis by high-frequency gastric electrical stimulation. Diabetes Care 2004;27:1071-6
  • McCallum R, Lin Z, Wetzel P, et al. Clinical response to gastric electrical stimulation in patients with postsurgical gastroparesis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:49-54
  • McCallum RW, Snape W, Brody F, et al. Gastric electrical stimulation with Enterra therapy improves symptoms from diabetic gastroparesis in a prospective study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8:947-54; quiz e116
  • Eckhauser FE, Knol JA, Raper SA, Guice KS. Completion gastrectomy for postsurgical gastroparesis syndrome. Preliminary results with 15 patients. Ann Surg 1988;208:345-53
  • Watkins PJ, Buxton-Thomas MS, Howard ER. Long-term outcome after gastrectomy for intractable diabetic gastroparesis. Diabet Med 2003;20:58-63
  • Kennedy WR, Navarro X, Goetz FC, et al. Effects of pancreatic transplantation on diabetic neuropathy. N Engl J Med 1990;322:1031-7
  • Lee TC, Barshes NR, O'Mahony CA, et al. The effect of pancreatic islet transplantation on progression of diabetic retinopathy and neuropathy. Transplant Proc 2005;37:2263-5
  • Hathaway DK, Abell T, Cardoso S, et al. Improvement in autonomic and gastric function following pancreas-kidney versus kidney-alone transplantation and the correlation with quality of life. Transplantation 1994;57:816-22
  • Sun BM, Luo M, Wu SB, et al. Acupuncture versus metoclopramide in treatment of postoperative gastroparesis syndrome in abdominal surgical patients: a randomized controlled trial. Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Xue Bao 2010;8:641-4
  • Wang L. Clinical observation on acupuncture treatment in 35 cases of diabetic gastroparesis. J Tradit Chin Med 2004;24:163-5
  • Wang CP, Kao CH, Chen WK, et al. A single-blinded, randomized pilot study evaluating effects of electroacupuncture in diabetic patients with symptoms suggestive of gastroparesis. J Altern Complement Med 2008;14:833-9
  • Rashed H, Cutts T, Abell T, et al. Predictors of response to a behavioral treatment in patients with chronic gastric motility disorders. Dig Dis Sci 2002;47:1020-6

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.