75
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Current treatment options for acute pain

, &
Pages 1599-1611 | Published online: 25 Feb 2005

REFERENCES

  • CARR DB, JACOX AK, CHAPMAN CR et al: Clinical practice guidelines for acute pain management: operative or medical procedures and trauma. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, US Dept of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC (1992), USA, DHHS publication no. 95–0034. •Excellent summary of status of acute pain control and methods of relieving acute pain.
  • LYNCH EP, LAZOR MA, GELLIS JE, ORAV J, GOLDMAN L, MARCANTONIO ER: Patient experience of pain after elective noncardiac surgery. Anesth. Analg. (1997) 85:117–123.
  • WARFIELD CA, KAHN CH: Acute pain management. Programs in US hospitals and experiences and attitudes among US adults. Anesthesiology (1995) 83:1090–1094.
  • SHERMAN RA, DEVOR M, JONES D, KATZ J, MARBACH JJ: Phantom Pain. Plenum, New York, NY, USA (1997).
  • TAENZER P, MELZACK R, JEANS ME: Influence of psychological factors on postoperative pain, mood and analgesic requirements. Pain (1986) 24:331–342.
  • BACHIOCCO V, SCESI M, MORSELLIAM, CARLI G: Individual pain history and familial pain tolerance models: relationships to post-surgical pain. Clin. J. Pain (1993) 9:266–271.
  • TADDIO A, GOLDBACH M, IPP M, STEVENS B, KOREN G: Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain responses during vaccination in boys. Lancet (1995) 345:291-292. •Clear demonstration of long-term effects of minor procedures.
  • DAJCZMAN E, GORDON A, KREISMAN H, WOLKOVE N: Long-term postthoracotomy pain. Chest (1991) 99:270–274.
  • DE VRIES J, TIMMER P, ERFTEMEIERE, VAN DER WEELE L: Breast pain after breast conserving therapy. Breast (1994) 3:151–154.
  • WALLACE MS, WALLACE AM, LEE J,DOBKE MK: Pain after breast surgery: a survey of 282 women. Pain (1996) 66:195–205.
  • GOTTSCHALK A, SMITH DS, JOBES DR et al.: Preemptive epidural analgesia and recovery from radical prostatectomy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA (1998) 279:1076-1082. ••Demonstrates a long-term benefit of pre-emptive analgesia.
  • HAYTHORNTHWAITE JA, RAJA SN, FISHER B, FRANK SM, BRENDLER CB, SHIR Y: Pain and quality of life following radical retropubic prostatectomy. Urol. (1998) 160:1761–1764.
  • CALLESEN T, KEHLET H: Postherniorrhaphy pain. Anesthesiology (1997) 87:1219–1230.
  • BAY-NIELSEN M, PERKINS FM, KEHLET H: Pain and functional impairment 1 year after inguinal herniorrhaphy: a nationwide questionnaire study. Ann. &lig. (2001) 233:1–7.
  • KALSO E, MENNANDER S, TASMUTH T, NILSSON E: Chronic post-sternotomy pain. Acta AnaesthesioL Scand. (2001) 45:935–939.
  • FIELDS HL: Pain. McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York, NY, USA (1987).
  • FITZGERALD M, LYNN B: The sensitization of high threshold mechanoreceptors with myelinated axons by repeated heating. J. Physiol (1977) 265:549–563.
  • CAMPBELL JN, MEYER RA, LAMOTTE RH: Sensitization of myelinated nociceptive afferents that innervate monkey hand. I NeurophysioL (1979) 42:1669–1679.
  • MEYER RA, CAMPBELL JN: Myelinated nociceptive afferents account for the hyperalgesia that follows a burn to the hand. Science (1981) 213:1527–1529.
  • KELLY DJ, AHMAD M, BRULL SJ: Preemptive analgesia I: physiological pathways and pharmacological modalities. Can. Anaesth. (2001) 48:1000-1010. •Good review of pharmacology of pain.
  • STEIN C: The control of pain in peripheral tissue by opioids. N Engl. Med. (1995) 332:1685-1690. •An excellent review of the periperal response to noxious stimuli.
  • YANG LC, CHEN LM, WANG CJ, BUERKLE H: Postoperative analgesia by intra-articular neostigmine in patients undergoing knee arthroscopy. Anesthesiology (1998) 88:334–339.
  • BERNARDINI N, REEH PW, SAUER SK: Muscarinic M2 receptors inhibit heat-induced CGRP release from isolated rat skin. Neuroreport (2001) 12:2457–2460.
  • KHASAR SG, GREEN PG, CHOU B, LEVINE JD: Peripheral nociceptive effects of a 2-adrenergic receptor agonists in the rat. Neuroscience (1995) 66:427–432.
  • GENTILI M, JUHEL A, BONNET F: Peripheral analgesic effect of intra-articular clonidine. Pain (1996) 64:593–596.
  • TVERSKOY M, OREN M, VASKOVICH M, DASHKOVSKY I, KISSIN I: Ketamine enhances local anesthetic and analgesic effects of bupivacaine by peripheral mechanism: a study in postoperative patients. Neurosci. Lett. (1996) 215:5–8.
  • CARLTON SM: Peripheral excitatory amino acids. Carr: Opin. Pharmacol (2001) 1:52–56.
  • WATKINS LR, MAIER SF: The case of themissing brain: Arguments for a role of brain-to-spinal cord pathways in pain facilitation. Behav. Brain Sci. (1997) 20:469–470.
  • MELZACK R, WALL PD: Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science (1965) 150:971-979. ••The gate control theory of pain.
  • MELZACK R: The Challenge of Pain. BasicBooks, New York, NY, USA (1998).
  • RAINVILLE P, DUNCAN GH, PRICE DD, CARRIER B, BUSHNELL MC: Pain affect encoded in human anterior cingulate but not somatosensory cortex. Science (1997) 277:968-971. •An extremely elegant study of where in the brain pain is encoded.
  • WOOLF CJ: Evidence for a central component of post-injury pain hypersensitivity. Nature (1983) 306:686-688. •Some of the first evidence of sensitisation of the central nervous system.
  • HERRERO JF, LAIRD JM, LOPEZ-GARCIA JA: Wind-up of spinal cord neurones and pain sensation: much ado about something? Frog. Neurobiol (2000) 61:169–203.
  • SELTZER Z, BEILIN BZ, GINZBURG R,PARAN Y, SHIMKO T: The role of injury discharge in the induction of neuropathic pain behavior in rats. Pant (1991) 46:327–336.
  • YAMAMOTO T, SHIMOYAMA N, MIZUGUCHI T: Role of the injury discharge in the development of thermal hyperesthesia after sciatic nerve constriction injury in the rat. Anesthesiology (1993) 79:993–1002.
  • MURASE K, RANDIC M: Actions of substance P on rat spinal dorsal horn neurones..1 Physiol (1984) 346:203–217.
  • SKOFITSCH G, JACOBOWITZ DM: Calcitonin gene-related peptide coexists with substance P in capsaicin sensitive neurons and sensory ganglia of the rat. Peptides (1985) 6:747–754.
  • MANTYH PW, ROGERS SD, HONORE P et al.: Inhibition of hyperalgesia by ablation of lamina I spinal neurons expressing the substance P receptor. Science (1997) 278:275–279.
  • MALMBERG AB, CHEN C, TONEGAWA S, BASBAUM Al: Preserved acute pain and reduced neuropathic pain in mice lacking PKCy. Science (1997) 278:279–283.
  • LIU H, MANTYH PW, BASBAUM Al: NMDA-receptor regulation of substance P release from primary afferent nociceptors. Nature (1997) 386:721–724.
  • WOOLF CJ, THOMPSON SW: The induction and maintenance of central sensitization is dependent on N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor activation; implications for the treatment of post-injury pain hypersensitivity states. Pant (1991) 44:293–299.
  • WOOLF CJ, KING AE: Dynamic alterations in the cutaneous mechanoreceptive fields of dorsal horn neurons in the rat spinal cord. NeuroscL (1990) 10:2717–2726.
  • DICKENS ON AH, SULLIVAN AF: Subcutaneous formalin-induced activity of dorsal horn neurones in the rat: differential response to an intrathecal opiate administered pre or post formalin. Pant (1987) 30:349–360.
  • BESSE D, LOMBARD MC, ZAJAC JM, ROQUES BP, BESSON JM: Pre- and postsynaptic location of II, 8 and lc opioid receptors in the superficial layers of the dorsal horn of the rat spinal cord. Frog. Clin Biol. Res. (1990) 328:183–186.
  • FIELDS HL, HEINRICHER MM, MASON P: Neurotransmitters in nociceptive modulatory circuits. Ann. Rev Neurosci. (1991) 14:219–245.
  • DETWEILER DJ, EISENACH JC, TONG C, JACKSON C: A cholinergic interaction in alpha 2 adrenoceptor-mediated antinociception in sheep. J. Pharmacol Exp. Ther. (1993) 265:536–542.
  • MCCORIVIACK K: The spinal actions of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the dissociation between their anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. Drugs (1994) 47\(Suppl. 5):28–45.
  • SVENSSON CI, YAKSH TL: The spinal phospholipase-cyclooxygenase-prostanoid cascade in nociceptive processing. Ann. Rev Pharmacol Toxicol (2002) 42:553–583.
  • PLEUVRY BJ: Opioid receptors and their relevance to anaesthesia. Br. .1. Anaesth. (1993) 71:119–126.
  • VACCARINO AL, CLEMMONS HR, MADER GJ Jr, MAGNUSSON JE: A role of periaqueductal grey NMDA receptors in mediating formalin- induced pain in the rat. Neurosci. Lett. (1997) 236:117–119.
  • JENSEN TS, YAKSH TL: Brainstem excitatory amino acid receptors in nociception: microinjection mapping and pharmacological characterization of glutamate-sensitive sites in the brainstem associated with algogenic behavior. Neuroscience (1992) 46:535–547.
  • WANG YC, SU CE LIN MT: The site and the mode of analgesic actions exerted by clonidine in monkeys. Exp. Nemo] (1985) 90:479–488.
  • ABRAM SE, YAKSH TL: Morphine, butnot inhalation anesthesia, blocks post-injury facilitation. The role of preemptive suppression of afferent transmission. Anesthesiology (1993) 78:713–721.
  • GRANT GJ, BANSINATH M: Liposomal delivery systems for local anesthetics. Reg. Anesth. Pant Med. (2001) 26:61–63.
  • BOURKE M, HAYES A, DOYLE M, MCCARROLL M: A comparison of regularly administered sustained release oral morphine with intramuscular morphine for control of postoperative pain. Anesth. Analg. (2000) 90:427–430.
  • CURTIS GB, JOHNSON GH, CLARK P et al.: Relative potency of controlled-release oxycodone and controlled-release morphine in a postoperative pain model. Eur. Clin. Pharmaca (1999) 55:425–429.
  • KIM T, MURDANDE S, GRUBER A, KIM S: Sustained-release morphine for epidural analgesia in rats. Anesthesiology (1996) 85:331–338.
  • MAO J, PRICE DD, MAYER DJ: Mechanisms of hyperalgesia and morphine tolerance: a current view of their possible interactions. Pan) (1995) 62:259–274.
  • PRICE DD, MAYER DJ, MAO J, CARUSO FS: NMDA-receptor antagonists and opioid receptor interactions as related to analgesia and tolerance. J. Pan) Symptom. Manage. (2000) 19:S7–S11.
  • STEIN C, COMISEL K, HAIMERL E et al.: Analgesic effect of intraarticular morphine after arthroscopic knee surgery. N Engl. J. Med. (1991) 325:1123–1126.
  • GUPTA A, BODIN L, HOLMSTROM B, BERGGREN L: A systematic review of the peripheral analgesic effects of intraarticular morphine. Anesth. Analg. (2001) 93:761–770.
  • LIKAR R, KOPPERTW, BLATNIG H et al.: Efficacy of peripheral morphine analgesia in inflamed, non-inflamed and perineural tissue of dental surgery patients. I Pan) Symptom. Manage. (2001) 21:330–337.
  • GENTILI M, ENEL D, SZYMSKIEWICZ0, MANSOUR F, BONNET F: Postoperative analgesia by intraarticular clonidine and neostigmine in patients undergoing knee arthroscopy. Reg. Anesth. Pan) Med. (2001) 26:342–347.
  • CONNELLY NR, REUBEN SS, ALBERT M, PAGE D: Use of preincisional ketorolac in hernia patients: intravenous versus surgical site. Reg. Anesth. (1997) 22:229–232.
  • REUBEN SS, DUPRAT KM: Comparison of wound infiltration with ketorolac versus intravenous regional anesthesia with ketorolac for postoperative analgesia following ambulatory hand surgery. Reg. Anesth. (1996) 21:565–568.
  • WALLENGREN J, HAKANSON R: Effects of substance P, neurokinin A and calcitonin gene-related peptide in human skin and their involvement in sensory nerve-mediated responses. Eur. Pharmaca (1987) 143:267–273.
  • BJERRING P, ARENDT-NIELSEN L: A quantitative comparison of the effect of local analgesics on argon laser induced cutaneous pain and on histamine induced wheal, flare and itch. Acta Dem. Venerea (1990) 70:126–131.
  • MOINICHE S, DAHL JB, BRENNUM J, KEHLET H: No antiinflammatory effect of short-term topical and subcutaneous administration of local anesthetics on postburn inflammation. Reg. Anesth. (1993) 18:300–303.
  • PERTL C, AMANN R, ODELL E, ROBINSON PD, KIM S: Effects of local anesthesia on substance P and CGRP content of the human dental pulp.' Endod. (1997) 23:416–418.
  • GRANT GJ, VERMEULEN K, ZAKOWSKI MI, LANGERMAN L: Perineural antinociceptive effect of opioids in a rat model. Acta Anaesthesia Scand. (2001) 45:906–910.
  • BOURKE DL, FURMAN WR: Improved postoperative analgesia with morphine added to axillary block solution. J. Clin. Anesth. (1993) 5:114–117.
  • CHOE H, CHOI YS, KIM YH et al: Epidural morphine plus ketamine for upper abdominal surgery: improved analgesia from preincisional versus postincisional administration. Anesth. Analg. (1997) 84:560–563.
  • NIEMI G, BREIVIK H: Epinephrine markedly improves thoracic epidural analgesia produced by a small-dose infusion of ropivacaine, fentanyl, and epinephrine after major thoracic or abdominal surgery: a randomized, double-blinded crossover study with and without epinephrine. Anesth. Analg. (2002) 94:1598–1605.
  • CURATOLO M, PETERSEN-FELIX S, ARENDT-NIELSEN L, ZBINDEN AM: Epidural epinephrine and clonidine: segmental analgesia and effects on different pain modalities. Anesthesiology (1997) 87:785–794.
  • GOYAGI T, NISHIKAWA T: The additionof epinephrine enhances postoperative analgesia by intrathecal morphine. Anesth. Analg. (1995) 81:508–513.
  • ABRAM SE, WINNE RP: Intrathecal acetyl cholinesterase inhibitors produce analgesia that is synergistic with morphine and clonidine in rats. Anesth. Analg. (1995) 81:501–507.
  • LUND C, SELMAR P, HANSEN OB, HJORTSO NC, KEHLET H: Effect of epidural bupivacaine on somatosensory evoked potentials after dermatomal stimulation. Anesth. Analg. (1987) 66:34–38.
  • LUND C, HANSEN OB, MOGENSEN T, KEHLET H: Effect of thoracic epidural bupivacaine on somatosensory evoked potentials after dermatomal stimulation. Anesth. Analg. (1987) 66:731–734.
  • LANG E, ERDMANN K, GERBERSHAGEN HU: High spinal anesthesia does not depress central nervous system function as measured by central conduction time and somatosensory evoked potentials. Anesth. Analg. (1990) 71:176–180.
  • KEHLET H, DAHL JB: The value of multimodar or 'balanced analgesia' in postoperative pain treatment. Anesth. Analg. (1993) 77:1048-1056. •Articulation of the concept of multirnodal anesthesia.
  • KEHLET H: Multimodal approach to control postoperative pathophysiology and rehabilitation. Br. Anaesth. (1997) 78:606–617.
  • JIN F, CHUNG F: Multimodal analgesia for postoperative pain control. Anesth. (2001) 13:524–539.
  • WALL PD: The prevention of postoperative pain. Pain (1988) 33:289-290. •The concept of preemptive analgesia is first articulated.
  • MCQUAY HJ: Pre-emptive analgesia. Br. I Anaesth. (1992) 69:1–3.
  • WOOLF CJ, CHONG MS: Preemptive analgesia-treating postoperative pain by preventing the establishment of central sensitization. Anesth. Analg. (1993) 77:362–379.
  • TAYLOR BK, BRENNAN TJ: Preemptive analgesia: Moving beyond conventional strategies and confusing terminology." Pan) (2000) 1:77–84.
  • GOTTSCHALK A: Preemptive analgesia: an ounce of prevention still may be worth a pound of cure. J. Pan) (2000) 1:85–88.
  • MOINICHE S, KEHLET H, DAHL JB: A qualitative and quantitative systematic review of preemptive analgesia for postoperative pain relief: the role of timing of analgesia. Anesthesiology (2002) 96:725-741. Meta-analysis of clinical studies of preemptive analgesia which is generally not supportive of preemptive analgesia defmed in the narrow sense.
  • HOGAN QH: No preemptive analgesia: is that so bad? Anesthesiology (2002) 96:526–527.
  • KISSIN I: Preemptive analgesia: terminology and clinical relevance. Anesth. Analg. (1994) 79:809–810.
  • KISSIN I: Preemptive analgesia. Why its effect is not always obvious. Anesthesiology (1996) 84:1015-1019. ••A key discussion for appreciating clinicalstudies of preemptive analgesia.
  • CARR DB: Preemptive analgesia implies prevention. Anesthesiology (1996) 85:1498–1499.
  • PASQUALUCCI A: Experimental and clinical studies about the preemptive analgesia with local anesthetics. Possible reasons of the failure. Minerva Anestesiol (1998) 64:445–457.
  • CODERRE TJ, VACCARINO AL, MELZACK R: Central nervous system plasticity in the tonic pain response to subcutaneous formalin injection. Brain Res. (1990) 535:155–158.
  • GONZALEZ-DARDER JM, BARBERA J, ABELLAN MJ: Effects of prior anaesthesia on autotomy following sciatic transection in rats. Pain (1986) 24:87–91.
  • BRENNAN TJ, UMALI EF, ZAHN PK: Comparison of pre- versus post-incision administration of intrathecal bupivacaine and intrathecal morphine in a rat model of postoperative pain. Anesthesiology (1997) 87:1517–1528.
  • FLETCHER D, KAYSER V, GUILBAUD G: Influence of timing of administration on the analgesic effect of bupivacaine infiltration in carrageenin-injected rats. Anesthesiology (1996) 84:1129–1137.
  • KISSIN I, LEE SS, BRADLEY EL Jr: Effectof prolonged nerve block on inflammatory hyperalgesia in rats: prevention of late hyperalgesia. Anesthesiology (1998) 88:224–232.
  • O'CONNOR TC, ABRAM SE: Halothaneenhances suppression of spinal sensitization by intrathecal morphine in the rat formalin test. Anesthesiology (1994) 81:1277–1283.
  • GOTO T, MAROTA JJ, CROSBY G: Nitrous oxide induces preemptive analgesia in the rat that is antagonized by halothane. Anesthesiology (1994) 80:409–416.
  • KEHLET H: Postoperative pain relief-what is the issue? Br. Anaesth. (1994) 72:375–378.
  • TVERSKOY M, COZACOV C, AYACHE M, BRADLEY EL, JR., KISSIN I: Postoperative pain after inguinal herniorrhaphy with different types of anesthesia. Anesth. Analg. (1990) 70:29-35. •Simple but provocative early study.
  • MORISAKI H, MASUDA J, FUKUSHIMA K, IWAO Y, SUZUKI K, MATSUSHIMA M: Wound infiltration with lidocaine prolongs postoperative analgesia after haemorrhoidectomy with spinal anaesthesia. Can. Anaesth. (1996) 43:914–918.
  • BUGEDO GJ, CARCAMO CR, MERTENS RA, DAGNINOJA, MUNOZ HR: Preoperative percutaneous ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerve block with 0.5% bupivacaine for post-herniorrhaphy pain management in adults. Reg. Anesth. (1990) 15:130–133.
  • EJLERSEN E, ANDERSEN HB, ELIASEN K, MOGENSEN T: A comparison between preincisional and postincisional lidocaine infiltration and postoperative pain. Anesth. Analg. (1992) 74:495–498.
  • KATZ J, KAVANAGH BP, SANDLER AN et al.: Preemptive analgesia. Clinical evidence of neuroplasticity contributing to postoperative pain. Anesthesiology (1992) 77:439–446.
  • RICHMOND CE, BROMLEY LM, WOOLF CJ: Preoperative morphine pre-empts postoperative pain. Lancet (1993) 342:73–75.
  • COLLIS R, BRANDNER B, BROMLEY LM, WOOLF CJ: Is there any clinical advantage of increasing the pre-emptive dose of morphine or combining pre-incisional with postoperative morphine administration? Br. Anaesth. (1995) 74:396–399.
  • TVERSKOY M, OZ Y, ISAKSON A, FINGER J, BRADLEY EL Jr, KISSIN I: Preemptive effect of fentanyl and ketamine on postoperative pain and wound hyperalgesia. Anesth. Analg. (1994) 78:205–209.
  • MCQUAY HJ, CARROLL D, MOORE RA: Postoperative orthopaedic pain-the effect of opiate premedication and local anaesthetic blocks. Pain (1988) 33:291–295.
  • WILSON RJ, LEITH S, JACKSON IJ, HUNTER D: Pre-emptive analgesia from intravenous administration of opioids. No effect with alfentanil. Anaesthesia (1994) 49:591–593.
  • KATZ J, CLAIROUX M, REDAHAN C et al.: High dose alfentanil pre-empts pain after abdominal hysterectomy. Pain (1996) 68:109–118.
  • GRIFFIN MJ, HUGHES D, KNAGGS A, DONNELLY MB, BOYLAN JF: Late-onset preemptive analgesia associated with preincisional large- dose alfentanil. Anesth. Analg. (1997) 85:1317–1321.
  • CHIA YY, LIU K, WANG JJ, KUO MC, HO ST: Intraoperative high dose fentanyl induces postoperative fentanyl tolerance. Can. Anaesth. (1999) 46:872–877.
  • GUIGNARD B, BOSSARD AE, COSTE C et al: Acute opioid tolerance: intraoperative remifentanil increases postoperative pain and morphine requirement. Anesthesiology (2000) 93:409–417.
  • CELERIER E, RIVAT C, JUN Y et al.: Long-lasting hyperalgesia induced by fentanyl in rats: preventive effect of ketamine. Anesthesiology (2000) 92:465–472.
  • EISENACH JC: Preemptive hyperalgesia, not analgesia? Anesthesiology (2000) 92:308–309.
  • SCHMID RL, SANDLER AN, KATZ J: Use and efficacy of low-dose ketamine in the management of acute postoperative pain: a review of current techniques and outcomes. Pain (1999) 82:111–125.
  • DAHL V, ERNOE PE, STEEN T, RAEDER JC, WHITE PF: Does ketamine have preemptive effects in women undergoing abdominal hysterectomy procedures? Anesth. Analg. (2000) 90:1419–1422.
  • ROYTBLAT L, KOROTKORUCHKO A, KATZ J, GLAZER M, GREEMBERG L, FISHER A: Postoperative pain: the effect of low-dose ketamine in addition to general anesthesia. Anesth. Analg. (1993) 77:1161–1165.
  • AIDA S, YAMAKURA T, BABA H, TAGA K, FUKUDA S, SHIMOJI K: Preemptive analgesia by intravenous low-dose ketamine and epidural morphine in gastrectomy: a randomized double-blind study. Anesthesiology (2000) 92:1624–1630.
  • DE KOCK M, LAVAND'HOMME P, WATERLOOS H: 'Balanced analgesia' in the perioperative period: is there a place for ketamine? Pain (2001) 92:373–380.
  • GRACE RE POWER I, UMEDALY H et al.: Preoperative dextromethorphan reduces intraoperative but not postoperative morphine requirements after laparotomy. Anesth. Analg. (1998) 87:1135–1138.
  • HELMY SA, BALI A: The effect of the preemptive use of the NMDA receptor antagonist dextromethorphan on postoperative analgesic requirements. Anesth. Analg. (2001) 92:739–744.
  • WU CT, YU JC, YEH CC et al.: Preincisional dextromethorphan treatment decreases postoperative pain and opioid requirement after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Anesth. Analg. (1999) 88:1331–1334.
  • WU CT, YU JC, LIU ST, YEH CC, LI CY, WONG CS: Preincisional dextromethorphan treatment for postoperative pain management after upper abdominal surgery. Worldj Sag. (2000) 24:512–517.
  • WEINBROUM AA, LALAYEV G, YASHAR T, BEN ABRAHAM R, NIV D, FLAISHON R: Combined pre-incisional oral dextromethorphan and epidural lidocaine for postoperative pain reduction and morphine sparing: a randomised double-blind study on day-surgery patients. Anaesthesia (2001) 56:616–622.
  • CABELL CA: Does ketorolac produce preemptive analgesic effects in laparoscopic ambulatory surgery patients? AANA (2000) 68:343–349.
  • MURPHY DF, MEDLEY C: Preoperative indomethacin for pain relief after thoracotomy: comparison with postoperative indomethacin. Br. Anaesth. (1993) 70:298–300.
  • NORMAN PH, DALEY MD, LINDSEY RW: Preemptive analgesic effects of ketorolac in ankle fracture surgery. Anesthesiology (2001) 94:599–603.
  • REUBEN SS, BHOPATKAR S, MACIOLEK H, JOSHI W, SKLAR J: The preemptive analgesic effect of rofecoxib after ambulatory arthroscopic knee surgery. Anesth. Analg. (2002) 94:55–59.
  • NORRIS A, UN V, CHUNG F, THANAMAYOORAN S, SANDLER A, KATZ J: When should diclofenac be given in ambulatory surgery: preoperatively or postoperatively?, " Clin. Anesth. (2001) 13:11–15.
  • SALONEN A, KOKKI H, TUOVINEN K: IN. ketoprofen for analgesia after tonsillectomy: comparison of pre- and post- operative administration. Br. Anaesth. (2001) 86:377–381.
  • O'HANLON JJ, MULDOON T, LOWRY D, MCCLEANE G: Improved postoperative analgesia with preoperative piroxicam. Can. Anaesth. (1996) 43:102–105.
  • COLBERT ST, O'HANLON DM, MCDONNELL C, GIVEN FH, KEANE PW: Analgesia in day case breast biopsy-the value of pre-emptive tenoxicam. Can.' Anaesth. (1998) 45:217–222.
  • O'HANLON DM, THAMBIPILLAI T, COLBERT ST, KEANE PW, GIVEN HF: Timing of pre-emptive tenoxicam is important for postoperative analgesia. Can. J.Anaesth. (2001) 48:162–166.
  • KATZ J: Pre-emptive analgesia: importance of timing. Can. Anaesth. (2001) 48:105–114.
  • MOINICHE S, MIKKELSEN S, WETTERSLEV J, DAHL JB: A qualitative systematic review of incisional local anaesthesia for postoperative pain relief after abdominal operations. Br. Anaesth. (1998) 81:377–383.
  • BARTHOLDY J, SPERLING K, IBSEN M, ELIASEN K, MOGENSEN T: Preoperative infiltration of the surgical area enhances postoperative analgesia of a combined low-dose epidural bupivacaine and morphine regimen after upper abdominal surgery. Acta Anaesthesia Scand. (1994) 38:262–265.
  • HANNIBAL K, GALATIUS H, HANSEN A, OBEL E, EJLERSEN E: Preoperative wound infiltration with bupivacaine reduces early and late opioid requirement after hysterectomy. Anesth. Analg. (1996) 83:376–381.
  • KO CY, THOMPSON JE Jr, ALCANTARA A, HIYAMA D: Preemptive analgesia in patients undergoing appendectomy. Arch. Sag. (1997) 132:874–877.
  • KE RW, PORTERA SG, BAGOUS W, LINCOLN SR: A randomized, double-blinded trial of preemptive analgesia in laparoscopy. Obstet. Cynecol (1998) 92:972–975.
  • PASQUALUCCI A, DE ANGELIS V, CONTARDO R et al.: Preemptive analgesia: intraperitoneal local anesthetic in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Anesthesiology (1996) 85(1):11–20.
  • TADDIO A, KATZ J, ILERSICH AL, KOREN G: Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain response during subsequent routine vaccination. Lancet (1997) 349:599–603.
  • REUBEN SS, SKLAR J, EL MANSOURI M: The preemptive analgesic effect of intraarticular bupivacaine and morphine after ambulatory arthroscopic knee surgery. Anesth. Analg. (2001) 92:923–926.
  • TVERSKOY M, BRASLAVSKY A, MAZOR A, FERMAN R, KISSIN I: The peripheral effect of fentanyl on postoperative pain. Anesth. Analg. (1998) 87:1121–1124.
  • ALTINTAS F, BOZKURT P, IPEK N, YUCEL A, KAYA G: The efficacy of pre-versus postsurgical axillary block on postoperative pain in paediatric patients. Paediatr. Anaesth. (2000) 10:23–28.
  • RINGROSE NH, CROSS MJ: Femoral nerve block in knee joint surgery. Am. Sports Med. (1984) 12:398–402.
  • ELIZAGA AM, SMITH DG, SHARAR SR, EDWARDS WT, HANSEN ST Jr: Continuous regional analgesia by intraneural block: effect on postoperative opioid requirements and phantom limb pain following amputation. .1. Rehabil Res. Dev. (1994) 31:179–187.
  • FISHER A, MELLER Y: Continuous postoperative regional analgesia by nerve sheath block for amputation surgery-a pilot study. Anesth. Analg. (1991) 72:300–303.
  • PINZUR MS, GARLA PG, PLUTH T, VRBOS L: Continuous postoperative infusion of a regional anesthetic after an amputation of the lower extremity. A randomized clinical trial.," Bone Joint. Sag. Am. (1996) 78:1501–1505.
  • WANG JJ, HO ST, LIU HS, TZENG JI, TZE TS, LIAW WJ: The effect of spinal versus general anesthesia on postoperative pain and analgesic requirements in patients undergoing lower abdominal surgery. Reg. Anesth. (1996) 21:281–286.
  • DAKIN MJ, OSINUBI OY, CARLI F: Preoperative spinal bupivacaine does not reduce postoperative morphine requirement in women undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy. Reg. Anesth. (1996) 21:99–102.
  • VAIDA SJ, BEN DAVID B, SOMRI M, CROITORU M, SABO E, GAITINI L: The influence of preemptive spinal anesthesia on postoperative pain. J. Clin. Anesth. (2000) 12:374–377.
  • AIDA S, BABA H, YAMAKURA T, TAGA •• K, FUKUDA S, SHIMOJI K: The effectiveness of preemptive analgesia varies according to the type of surgery: a randomized, double-blind study. Anesth. Analg. (1999) 89:711–716.
  • NIV D, WOLMAN I, YASHAR T, VARRASSI G, RUDICK V, GELLER E: Epidural morphine pretreatment for postepisiotomy pain. Clin../. Pain (1994) 10:319–323.
  • SUBRAMANIAM B, PAWAR DK, KASHYAP L: Pre-emptive analgesia with epidural morphine or morphine and bupivacaine. Anaesth. Intensive Care (2000) 28:392–398.
  • NEGRE I, GUENERON JP, JAMALI SJ, MONIN S, ECOFFEY C: Preoperative analgesia with epidural morphine. Anesth. Analg. (1994) 79:298–302.
  • KUNDRA P, GURNANI A, BHATTACHARYA A: Preemptive epidural morphine for postoperative pain relief after lumbar laminectomy. Anesth. Analg. (1997) 85:135–138.
  • SMITH CM, GURALNICK MS, GELFAND MM, JEANS ME: The effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on post- cesarean pain. Pahl (1986) 27:181–193.
  • DAHL JB, HANSEN BL, HJORTSO NC, ERICHSEN CJ, MOINICHE S, KEHLET H: Influence of timing on the effect of continuous extradural analgesia with bupivacaine and morphine after major abdominal surgery. Br. Anaesth. (1992) 69:4–8.
  • ESPINET A, HENDERSON DJ, FACCENDA KA, MORRISON LM: Does pre-incisional thoracic extradural block combined with diclofenac reduce postoperative pain after abdominal hysterectomy? Br. Anaesth. (1996) 76:209–213.
  • KATZ J, CLAIROUX M, KAVANAGH BP et al.: Pre-emptive lumbar epidural anaesthesia reduces postoperative pain and patient-controlled morphine consumption after lower abdominal surgery. Pahl (1994) 59:395–403.
  • NAKAMURA T, YOKOO H, HAMAKAWA T, TAKASAKI M: [Preemptive analgesia produced with epidural analgesia administered prior to surgery]. Masai (1994) 43:1024–1028.
  • NORRIS EJ, BEATTIE C, PERLER BA et al.: Double-masked randomized trial comparing alternate combinations of intraoperative anesthesia and postoperative analgesia in abdominal aortic surgery. Anesthesiology (2001) 95:1054–1067.
  • PRYLE BJ, VANNER RG, ENRIQUEZ N, REYNOLDS F: Can pre-emptive lumbar epidural blockade reduce postoperative pain following lower abdominal surgery? Anaesthesia (1993) 48:120–123.
  • RICHARDS JT, READ JR, CHAMBERS WA: Epidural anaesthesia as a method of pre-emptive analgesia for abdominal hysterectomy. Anaesthesia (1998) 53:296–298.
  • ROCKEMANN MG, SEELING W, BISCHOF C, BORSTINGHAUS D, STEFFEN P, GEORGIEFF M: Prophylactic use of epidural mepivacaine/ morphine, systemic diclofenac, and metamizole reduces postoperative morphine consumption after major abdominal surgery. Anesthesiology (1996) 84:1027–1034.
  • ROCKEMANN MG, SEELING W, PRESSLER S, STEFFEN P, GEORGIEFF M: Reduced postoperative analgesic demand after inhaled anesthesia in comparison to combined epidural-inhaled anesthesia in patients undergoing abdominal surgery. Anesth. Analg. (1997) 84:600–605.
  • SENTORK M, OZCAN PE, TALU GK et al.: The effects of three different analgesia techniques on long-term postthoracotomy pain. Anesth. Analg. (2002) 94:11–15.
  • SHIR Y, RAJA SN, FRANK SM: The effect of epidural versus general anesthesia on postoperative pain and analgesic requirements in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy. Anesthesiology (1994) 80:49–56.
  • OBATA H, SAITO S, FUJITA N, FUSE Y, ISHIZAKI K, GOTO F: Epidural block with mepivacaine before surgery reduces long-term post- thoracotomy pain. Can. J. Anaesth. (1999) 46:1127–1132.
  • WONG CS, LU CC, CHERNG CH, HO ST: Pre-emptive analgesia with ketamine, morphine and epidural lidocaine prior to total knee replacement. Can. Anaesth. (1997) 44:31–37.
  • KUNDRA P, DEEPALAKSHMI K, RAVISHANKAR M: Preemptive caudal bupivacaine and morphine for postoperative analgesia in children. Anesth. Analg. (1998) 87:52–56.
  • SABANATHAN S: Has postoperative pain been eradicated? Ann. R. Coll Surg. Engl (1995) 77:202–209.
  • OCHROCH EA, GOTTSCHALK A, AUGOSTIDES J et al.: A randomized study of long-term pain and activity during recovery from major thoracotomy. Anesthesiology (2002) 97:In Press.
  • BACH S, NORENG ME TJELLDEN NU: Phantom limb pain in amputees during the first 12 months following limb amputation, after preoperative lumbar epidural blockade. Pahl (1988) 33:297–301.
  • JAHANGIRI M, JAYATUNGA AP, BRADLEY JW, DARK CH: Prevention of phantom pain after major lower limb amputation by epidural infusion of diamorphine, clonidine and bupivacaine. Ann. R. Coll Surg. Engl. (1994) 76:324–326.
  • NIKOLAJSEN L, ILKJAER S, CHRISTENSEN JH, KRONER K, JENSEN TS: Randomised trial of epidural bupivacaine and morphine in prevention of stump and phantom pain in lower-limb amputation. Lancet (1997) 350:1353–1357.
  • KATZ J: Phantom limb pain. Lancet (1997) 350:1338-1339. •A critical summary of studies to decrease phantom limb pain.
  • AKCA 0, MELISCHEK M, SCHECK T et al.: Postoperative pain and subcutaneous oxygen tension. Lancet (1999) 354:41–42.
  • CARLI F, MAYO N, KLUBIEN K, SCHRICKER T, TRUDEL J, BELLIVEAU P: Epidural analgesia enhances functional exercise capacity and health-related quality of life after colonic surgery. Results of a randomized trial. Anesthesiology (2002) 97(3):550–559. ••An important long-term outcome study ofregional anesthesia which also addresses outcomes other than pain.
  • CAPDEVILA X, BARTHELET Y, BIBOULET P, RYCKWAERT Y, RUBENOVITCHJ, D'ATHIS F: Effects of perioperative analgesic technique on the surgical outcome and duration of rehabilitation after major knee surgery. Anesthesiology (1999) 91:8–15.
  • BRODNER G, POGATZKI E, VAN AKEN H et al.: A multimodal approach to control postoperative pathophysiology and rehabilitation in patients undergoing abdominothoracic esophagectomy. Anesth. Analg. (1998) 86:228–234.
  • KEHLET H, MOGENSEN T: Hospital stay of 2 days after open sigmoidectomy with a multimodal rehabilitation programme. Br. J. Surg. (1999) 86:227–230.
  • MOINICHE S, BULOW S, HESSELFELDT P, HESTBAEK A, KEHLET H: Convalescence and hospital stay after colonic surgery with balanced analgesia, early oral feeding, and enforced mobilisation. Eur. Surg. (1995) 161:283–288.
  • HENDOLIN H, ALHAVA E: Effect of epidural versus general anaesthesia on peroperative blood loss during retropubic prostatectomy. bit. [Ira Nephrol. (1982) 14:399–405.
  • HEND OLIN H, LAHTINEN J, LANSIMIES E, TUPPURAINEN T, PARTANEN K: The effect of thoracic epidural analgesia on respiratory function after cholecystectomy. Acta Anaesthesia Scand. (1987) 31:645–651.
  • KEHLET H: Modification of responses to surgery by neural blockade: Clinical implications. In: Clinical Anesthesia and Management of Pain. Cousins, MJ & Bridenbaugh, PO (Eds), Lippincott-Raven, New York, NY (1998):129–175.
  • COUSINS MJ, VEERING B: Epidural neural blockade. In: Neural Blockade in Clinical Anesthesia and Management of Pain. Cousins, MJ & Bridenbaugh, PO (Eds), Lippincott-Raven, New York, NY (1998):243–322.
  • SHIBATA K, YAMAMOTO Y, KOBAYASHI T, MURAKAMI S: Beneficial effect of upper thoracic epidural anesthesia in experimental hemorrhagic shock in dogs: influence of circulating catecholamines. Anesthesiology (1991) 74:303–308.
  • SHIBATA K, YAMAMOTO Y, MURAKAMI S: Effects of epidural anesthesia on cardiovascular response and survival in experimental hemorrhagic shock in dogs. Anesthesiology (1989) 71:953–959.
  • YEAGER MP, GLASS DD, NEFF RK, BRINCK-JOHNSEN T: Epidural anesthesia and analgesia in high-risk surgical patients. Anesthesiology (1987) 66:729–736.
  • LIU S, CARPENTER RL, NEAL JM: Epidural anesthesia and analgesia. Their role in postoperative outcome. Anesthesiology (1995) 82:1474–1506.
  • WILLIAMS-RUSSO P, SHARROCK NE, HAAS SB et al: Randomized trial of epidural versus general anesthesia: outcomes after primary total knee replacement. Clin. Orthop. (1996) October (331):199–208.
  • RODGERS A, WALKER N, SCHUG S et al.: Reduction of postoperative mortality and morbidity with epidural or spinal anaesthesia: results from overview of randomised trials. Br. Med. J. (2000) 321(7275):1493 •Important implications for use of regional anesthesia.
  • WU CL, NAQIBUDDIN M, FLEISHER LA: Measurement of patient satisfaction as an outcome of regional anesthesia and analgesia: a systematic review. Reg. Anesth. Pain Med. (2001) 26:196–208.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.