446
Views
241
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis: common drugs for treatment and control

&
Pages 263-285 | Published online: 02 Mar 2005

Bibliography

  • WHO: Prevention and control ofschistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis: report of a WHO expert committee. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 912, World Health Organization, Geneva (2002).
  • •Timely update on WHO's current strategies to control schistosomiasis and STH.
  • SAVIOLI L, STANSFIELD S,BUNDY DAP et al.: Schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminth infections: forging control efforts. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (2002) 96:577–579.
  • CROMPTON DWT, NESHEIM MC: Nutritional impact of intestinal helminthiasis during the human life cycle. Ann. Rev Num. (2002) 22:35–59.
  • ••An excellent review on the cross-talk ofintestinal helminths and human nutrition.
  • AWASTHI S, BUNDY DAP, SAVIOLI L:Helminthic infections. Br. Med.' (2003) 327:431–433.
  • MIGUEL E, KREMER M: Worms:identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities. Econometrica (2004) 72:159–217.
  • •Significant contribution by two economists quantifying externalities of large-scale administration of anthelmintics to the school-aged population.
  • BERGQUIST R, AL-SHERBINY M, BARAKAT R, OLDS R: Blueprint for schistosomiasis vaccine development. Acta Bop. (2002) 82:183–192.
  • HOTEZ PJ, ZHAN B, BETHONY JM et al.: Progress in the development of a recombinant vaccine for human hookworm disease: the human hookworm vaccine initiative. Int. .1 Parasitol (2003) 33:1245–1258.
  • WHO: The control of schistosomiasis: report of a WHO expert committee. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 728, World Health Organization, Geneva (1985).
  • WHO: Report of an informal consultation on intestinal helminths. WHO/CDS/IPI/90.1, World Health Organization, Geneva (1990).
  • DE SILVA NR: Impact of mass chemotherapy on the morbidity due to soil-transmitted nematodes. Acta Bop. (2003) 86:197–214.
  • •A good review on the impact of chemotherapy on STH.
  • RICHTER J: The impact of chemotherapy on morbidity due to schistosomiasis. Acta Bop. (2003) 86:161–183.
  • •A comprehensive review on the impact of chemotherapy on schistosomiasis.
  • PARTNERSHIP FOR CHILDDEVELOPMENT: The cost of large-scale school health programmes which deliver anthelmintics to children in Ghana and Tanzania. Acta Bop. (1999) 73:183–204.
  • BERGQUIST NR: Schistosomiasis: from risk assessment to control. Trends Parasitol (2002) 18:309–314.
  • FENWICK A, SAVIOLI L, ENGELS D, BERGQUIST NR, TODD MH: Drugs for the control of parasitic diseases: current status and development in schistosomiasis. Trends Parasitol (2003) 19:509–515.
  • •A timely update on chemotherapy-based schistosomiasis control at the onset of the 'Schistosomiasis Control Initiative'.
  • GUYATT H: The cost of deliveringand sustaining a control programme for schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis. Acta Bop. (2003) 86:267–274.
  • •Critical review of the subject with important implications for chemotherapy-based control approaches for schistosomiasis and STH.
  • URBANI C, ALBONICO M: Anthelminthic drug safety and drug administration in the control of soil-transmitted helminthiasis in community campaigns. Acta Bop. (2003) 86:215–221.
  • •Concise review on safety issues of the current drugs of choice for treatment and control of STH.
  • SCHAD GA, ROZEBOOM LE: Integrated control of helminths in human populations. Ann. Rev Era Syst. (1976) 7:393–420.
  • ••Delightful reading on the importance ofintegrated control approaches.
  • DAVIS A: Schistosomiasis. In: Manson's Tropical Diseases (21" edit). Cook GC, Zumla Al (Eds.), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, USA (2003):1431–1469.
  • ••Authoritative review on all aspects ofhuman schistosomiasis - Prof. Andrew Davis at his best!
  • HORTON J: Global anthelmintic chemotherapy programs: learning from history. Trends Parasitol (2003) 19:405–409.
  • UTZINGERJ, BERGQUIST R, XIAO SH, SINGER BH, TANNER M: Sustainable schistosomiasis control - the way forward. Lancet (2003) 362:1932–1934.
  • CHITSULO L, ENGELS D,MONTRESOR A, SAVIOLI L: The global status of schistosomiasis and its control. Acta Bop. (2000) 77:41–51.
  • ••Good paper with updated estimates of theglobal burden of schistosomiasis.
  • ENGELS D, CHITSULO L,MONTRESOR A, SAVIOLI L: The global epidemiological situation of schistosomiasis and new approaches to control and research: Acta Bop. (2002) 82:139–146.
  • TCHUEM TCHUENTE L-A, SOUTHGATE VR, JOURDANE J, WEBSTER BL, VERCRUYSSE J: Schistosoma intercalatum: an endangered species in Cameroon? Trends Parasitol (2003) 19:389–393.
  • PATZ JA, GRACZYK TK, GELLER N,VITTOR AY: Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases. Parasitol (2000) 30:1395–1405.
  • ROSS AGP, BARTLEY PM, SLEIGH AC et al.: Schistosomiasis. N Engl. .1 Med. (2002) 346:1212–1220.
  • •Comprehensive review on the epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis.
  • HU W, YAN Q, SHEN DK et al: Evolutionary and biomedical implications of a Schistosoma japonicum complementary DNA resource. Nat. Genet. (2003) 35:139–147.
  • ASH LR, ORIHEL TC, SAVIOLI L: Bench aids for the diagnosis of intestinal parasites. World Health Organization, Geneva (1994).
  • HATZ CFR: The use of ultrasound in schistosomiasis. Adv. Parasitol (2001) 48:225–284.
  • •An excellent review on this subject.
  • RICHTER J, HATZ C, HAUSSINGER D: Ultrasound in tropical and parasitic diseases. Lancet (2003) 362:900–902.
  • VAN DER WERF MJ, DE VLAS SJ, BROOKER S et al.: Quantification of clinical morbidity associated with schistosome infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Acta Bop. (2003) 86:125–139.
  • DE SILVA NR, BROOKER S, HOTEZ PJ, MONTRESOR A, ENGELS D, SAVIOLI L: Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol (2003) 19:547-551.Very nice paper updating previous estimates of people at risk and actually infected with STH.32.STOLL NR: This wormy world. I Parasitol(1947) 33:1–18.
  • •Essential reading for every parasitologist.
  • CHAN MS, MEDLEY GE JAMISON D, BUNDY DAP: The evaluation of potential global morbidity attributable to intestinal nematode infections. Parasitology (1994) 109:373–387.
  • BORKOW G, WEISMAN Z, LENG Q et al.: Helminths, human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. (2001) 33:568–571.
  • WHO: The use of essential drugs. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. No. 867, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1997.
  • HAGAN P, APPLETON CC, COLES GC, KUSEL JR, TCHUEM-TCHUENTE L-A: Schistosomiasis control: keep taking the tablets. Trends Parasitol (2004) 20:92–97.
  • •An informative review dealing with the important issue of praziquantel resistance at the advent of the likely increase of this drug in sub-Saharan Africa.
  • UTZINGERJ, XIAO SH, N'GORAN EK,BERGQUIST R, TANNER M: The potential of artemether for the control of schistosomiasis. Int. J. Parasitol (2001) 31:1549–1562.
  • •Comprehensive review on artemether with particular consideration for the control of schistosomiasis.
  • XIAO SH, TANNER M, N'GORAN EK et al.: Recent investigations of artemether, a novel agent for the prevention of schistosomiasis japonica, mansoni and haematobia. Acta Bop. (2002) 82:175–181.
  • GROLL E: Praziquantel. Adv. Pharmacol Chemother. (1984) 20:219–238.
  • •Detailed account on the discovery and anthelmintic properties of praziquantel.
  • GONNERT R, ANDREWS P: Praziquantel, a new broad-spectrum antischistosomal agent. Z Parasitenkd.(1977) 52:129–150.
  • PELLEGRINO J, LIMA-COSTA FE CARLOS MA, MELLO RT: Experimental chemotherapy of schistosomiasis mansoni. XIII. Activity of praziquantel, an isoquinoline-pyrazino derivative, on mice, hamsters and Cebus monkeys.Parasitenkd. (1977) 52:151–168.
  • WEBBE G, JAMES C: A comparison of the susceptibility to praziquantel of Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum,S. mansoni, S. intercalatum and S. mattheei im hamsters. Z Parasitenkd. (1977) 52:169–177.
  • JAMES C, WEBBE G, NELSON GS: The susceptibility to praziquantel of Schistosoma haematobium in the baboon (Papio anubis) and of S. japonicum in the vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops). Z Parasitenkd. (1977) 52:179–194.
  • KATZ N, ROCHA RS, CHAVES A: Preliminary trials with praziquantel in human infections due to Schistosoma mansoni. Bull. World Health Organ. (1979) 57:781–785.
  • DAVIS A, BILES JE, ULRICH AM: Initial experiences with praziquantel in the treatment of human infections due to Schistosoma haematobium. Bull. World Health Organ. (1979) 57:773–779.
  • SANTOS AT, BLAS BL, NOSENAS JS et al.: Preliminary clinical trials with praziquantel in Schistosoma japonicum infections in the Philippines. Bull. World Health Organ. (1979) 57:793–799.
  • LEOPOLD G, UNGETHUM W,GROLL E, DIEKMANN HW,NOWAK H, WEGNER DH: Clinical pharmacology in normal volunteers of praziquantel, a new drug against schistosomes and cestodes. An example of a complex study covering both tolerance and pharmacokinetics. Ear: .1. Clin. Pharmacol (1978) 14:281–291.
  • CASTRO N, MEDINA R, SOTELO J, JUNG H: Bioavailability of praziquantel increases with concomitant administration of food. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2000) 44:2903–2904.
  • MANDOUR ME, EL TURABI H, HOMEIDA MM et al.: Pharmacokinetics of praziquantel in healthy volunteers and patients with schistosomiasis. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1990) 84:389–393.
  • KOHN AB, ROBERTS-MISTERLY JM, ANDERSON PAV, GREENBERG RIVI: Creation by mutagenesis of a mammalian Ca2' channel 13 subunit that confers praziquantel sensitivity to a mammalian Ca2' channel. Int. J. Parasitol (2003) 33:1303–1308.
  • KOHN AB, ROBERTS-MISTERLY JM,ANDERSON PAV, KHAN N, GREENBERG RIVI: Specific sites in the Beta Interaction Domain of a schistosome Ca2' channel 13 subunit are key to its role in sensitivity to the anti-schistosomal drug praziquantel. Parasitology (2003) 127:349–356.
  • VALLE C, TROIANI AR, FESTUCCI A et al.: Sequence and level of endogenous expression of calcium channel 13 subunits in Schistosoma mansoni displaying different susceptibilities to praziquantel.Biochem. Parasitol (2003) 130:111–115.
  • CIOLI D, PICA-MATTOCCIA L: Praziquantel. Parasitol Res. (2003) 90:S3–S9.
  • •An excellent update underscoring the pivotal role praziquantel is playing in the control of schistosomiasis.
  • PASO G, N'GORAN EK, TOTY A et al.:Efficacy and side effects of praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni in a community of western Cote d'Ivoire. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (2004) 98:18–27.
  • ALLEN HE, CROMPTON DWT, DE SILVA N, LOVERDE PT, OLDS GR: New policies for using anthelmintics in high risk groups. Trends Parasitol (2002)18:381–382.
  • HALL A, NOKES C, WEN ST et al: Alternatives to bodyweight for estimating the dose of praziquantel needed to treat schistosomiasis. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1999) 93:653–658.
  • MONTRESOR A, ENGELS D, CHITSULO L, BUNDY DAP, BROOKER S, SAVIOLI L: Development and validation of a 'tablet pole' for the administration of praziquantel in sub-Saharan Africa. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (2001) 95:542–544.
  • MONTRESOR A, ENGELS D, RAMSAN M, FOUM A, SAVIOLI L: Field test of the 'dose pole' for praziquantel in Zanzibar. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (2002) 96:323–324.
  • SABAH AA, FLETCHER C, WEBBE G, DOENHOFF MJ: Schistosoma mansoni: chemotherapy of infections of different ages. Exp. Parasitol (1986) 61:294–303.
  • RENGANATHAN E, CIOLI D: An international initiative on praziquantel use.Parasitol Today(1998) 14:390–391.
  • PICQUET M, VERCRUYSSE J, SHAW DJ, DIOP M, LY A: Efficacy of praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni in northern Senegal. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1998) 92:90–93.
  • •The first study evaluating the effect of praziquantel administered twice within a few weeks in a recent and very intense focus of Schistosoma mansoni.
  • UTZINGER J, N'GORAN EK, N'DRI A,LENGELER C, TANNER M: Efficacy of praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni with particular consideration for intensity of infection. Bop. Med. hat. Health (2000) 5:771–778.
  • N'GORAN EK, GNAKA HN,TANNER M, UTZINGER J: Efficacy and side-effects of two praziquantel treatments against Schistosoma haematobium infection, among schoolchildren from Cote d'Ivoire. Ann. Bop. Med. Parasitol (2003) 97:37–51.
  • CIOLI D: Praziquantel: is there real resistance and are there alternatives? Carr. Opin. Infect. Dis. (2000) 13:659–663.
  • DANSO-APPIAH A, DE VLAS SJ: Interpreting low praziquantel cure rates of Schistosoma mansoni infections in Senegal. Trends Parasitol (2002) 18:125–129.
  • •A good paper comprehensively addressing the issue of low cure rates observed with praziquantel in the treatment of S. mansoni.
  • DOENHOFF MJ, KUSEL JR,COLES GC, CIOLI D: Resistance of Schistosoma mansoni to praziquantel: is there a problem? Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (2002) 96:465–469.
  • RICHARDS HC, FOSTER R: A new series of 2-aminomethyltetrahydroquinoline derivatives displaying schistosomicidal activity in rodents and primates.Nature (1969) 222:581–582.
  • DA SILVA LC, SETTE H,CHAMONE DAF, SAEZ ALQUEZAR A, PUNSKAS JA, RAIA S: Clinical trials with oral oxamniquine (UK 4271) for the treatment of mansonian schistosomiasis. Rev Inst. Med. Bop. Sao Paulo (1974) 16:103–109.
  • KOKWARO GO, TAYLOR G:Oxamniquine pharmacolkinetics in healthy Kenyan African volunteers. East AU:Med. (1991) 68:359–364.
  • CIOLI D, PICA-MATTOCCIA L, ARCHER S: Antischistosomal drugs: past, present ... and future? Pharmacol The]: (1995) 68:35–85.
  • ••A first-class review on all relevantantischistosomal drugs until the mid-1990s.
  • FOSTER R: A review of clinical experience with oxamniquine. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1987) 81:55–59.
  • KATZ N: Schistosomiasis control in Brazil. Mem. Inst. Oswald° Cruz (1998) 93 (Suppl. 1):33–35.
  • BECK L, FAVRE TC, PIERI OS,ZANI LC, DOMAS GG, BARBOSA CS: Replacing oxamniquine by praziquantel against Schistosoma mansoni infection in a rural community from the sugar-cane zone of northeast Brazil: an epidemiological follow-up. Mem. Inst. Oswald° Cruz (2001) 96 (Suppl.) :165–167.
  • LI Y, WU YL: An over four millennium story behind qinghaosu (artemisinin) - a fantastic antimalarial drug from a traditional chinese herb. Carr. Med. Chem. (2003) 10:2197–2230.
  • •A excellent review on the outstanding antimalarial properties of the artemisinins and good summary pertaining to other bioactivities, including schistosomiasis.
  • GUERIN PJ, OLLIARO P, NOSTEN F et al.: Malaria: current status of control, diagnosis, treatment, and a proposed agenda for research and development.Lancet Infect. Dis. (2002) 2:564–573.
  • CHEN DJ, FU LF, SHAO PP et al.: Experimental studies on antischistosomal activity of qinghaosu. Zhong. Hui. Vi. Xue. Zha. Zhi. (1980) 60:422–425.
  • LE W, YOU J, YANG Y et al.: Studies on the efficacy of artemether in experimental schistosomiasis. Acta Pharmaceut. SM. (1982) 17:187–193.
  • LE WJ, YOU JQ, MEI JY:Chemotherapeutic effect of artesunate in experimental schistosomiasis.Acta Pharmaceut. Sin. (1983) 18:619–621.
  • VAN AGTMAEL MA, EGGELTE TA, VAN BOXTEL CJ: Artemisinin drugs in the treatment of malaria: from medicinal herb to registered medication.Trends Pharmacol ScL (1999) 20:199–205.
  • KARBWANG J, NA-BANGCHANG K, THANAVIBUL A, MOLUNTO P: Plasma concentrations of artemether and its major plasma metabolite, dihydroartemisinin, following a 5-day regimen of oral artemether, in patients with uncomplicated falciparum malaria. Ann. Bop. Med. Parasitol (1998) 92:31–36.
  • ABDEL AZIZ SS, EL-BADAWY NM: Experimental trials of an artemisinin derivative in treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infected mice. .1. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol (2000) 30:295–303.
  • XIAO SH, WU YL, TANNER M et al.: Schistosoma japonicum: In vitro effects of artemether combined with haemin depend on cultivation media and appraisal of artemether products appearing in the media. Parasitol Res. (2003) 89:459–466.
  • ECKSTEIN-LUDWIG U, WEBB RJ, VAN GOETHEM IDA et al: -A,-temisinins target the SERCA of Plasmodium falciparum. Nature (2003) 424:957–961.
  • •Important study providing new insight into the possible mechanism of action of artemininins against malaria.
  • HU SY, LIU J, WANG B, HU ZD, XIAO CJ: The effect of artesunate in preventing the populations from Schistosoma japonicum infection during flood-control. Chin. j. Parasitol Parasit. Dis. (2000) 18:113–114.
  • UTZINGERJ, N'GORAN EK, N'DRI A, LENGELER C, XIAO SH, TANNER M: Oral artemether for prevention of Schistosoma mansoni infection: randomised controlled trial. Lancet (2000) 355:1320–1325.
  • BORRMANN S, SZLEZÁK N, FAUCHER J-F et al.: Artesunate and praziquantel for the treatment of Schistosoma haematobium infections: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Infect. Dis. (2001) 184:1363–1366.
  • DE CLERCQ D, VERCRUYSSE J, KONGS A, VERLE P, DOMPNIER JP, FAYE PC: Efficacy of artesunate and praziquantel in Schistosoma haematobium infected schoolchildren. Acta Bop. (2002) 82:61–66.
  • N'GORAN EK, UTZINGER J,GNAKA HN et al.: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral artemether for the prevention of patent Schistosoma haematobium infections. Am.j Bop. Med. Hyg. (2003) 68:24–32.
  • XIAO SH, YAO JM, UTZINGER J, CAI Y, CHOLLET J, TANNER M: Selection and reversal of Plasmodium berghei resistance in the mouse model following repeated high doses of artemether. Parasitol Res. (2004) (In Press).
  • DAVIS A, BAILEY DR: Metrifonate in urinary schistosomiasis. Bull. World Health Organ. (1969) 41:209–224.
  • WHO: The control of schistosomiasis: second report of the WHO expert committee. WHO Tech. Rep. Se.r No. 830, World Health Organization, Geneva (1993).
  • CIOLI D: Chemotherapy of schistosomiasis: an update. Parasitol Today (1998) 14:418–422.
  • FELDMEIER H, CHITSULO L: Therapeutic and operational profiles of metrifonate and praziquantel in Schistosoma haematobium infection. Arzneimittelforschung (1999) 49:557–565.
  • GUYATT HL: Medicinal merits of myrrh. Trends Parasitol (2002) 18:202.
  • SHEIR Z, NASR AA, MASSOUD A et al.: A safe, effective, herbal antischistosomal therapy derived from myrrh. Am. I Trop. Med. Hyg. (2001) 65:700–704.
  • VAN DEN BOSSCHE H, ROCHETTE F, HORIG C: Mebendazole and related anthelmintics. Adv. Pharmacol Chemother. (1982) 19:67–128.
  • •A comprehensive review on critically important benzimidazoles.
  • DE SILVA N, GUYATT H, BUNDY D: Anthelmintics. A comparative review of their clinical pharmacology. Drugs (1997) 53:769–788.
  • •Manuscript provides detailed information on the pharmacokinetics and drug efficacy on major anthelmintic drugs.
  • BROWN HD, MATZUK AR, ILVES IR et al: Antiparasitic drugs. IV. 2-(4'-thiazoly1)-benzimidazole, a new anthelmintic. I Am. Chem. Soc. (1961) 83:1764–1765.
  • MARTIN RJ, ROBERTSON AP, BJORN H: Target sites of anthelmintics. Parasitology (1997) 114:S111–S124.
  • THEODORIDES VJ, CHANG J, DICUOLLO CJ, GRASS GM, PARISH RC, SCOTT GC: Oxibendazole, a new broad spectrum anthelmintic effective against gastrointestinal nematodes of domestic animals. Br. Vet. (1973) 129:R97–R98.
  • THEODORIDES VJ, NAWALINSKI T, MURPHY J, FREEMAN J: Efficacy of albendazole against gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle. Am. I Vet. Res. (1976) 37:1517–1518.
  • HORTON J: Albendazole: a broad spectrum anthelminthic for treatment of individuals and populations. Curt: Opin. Infect. Dis. (2002) 15:599–608.
  • DAYAN AD: Albendazole, mebendazole and praziquantel. Review of non-clinical toxicity and pharmacokinetics. Acta Trop. (2003) 86:141–159.
  • •A timely update on the two key drugs for treatment and control of STH and the current drug of choice for schistosomiasis.
  • EDWARDS G, BRECKENRIDGE AM: Clinical pharmacokinetics of anthelmintic drugs. Clin. Pharmacokinet. (1988) 15:67–93.
  • ••A comprehensive review on the pharmacokinetic properties of many anthelmintic drugs.
  • MERINO G, MOLINA AJ, GARCIA JL, PULIDO MM, PRIETO JG, ALVAREZ Al: Intestinal elimination of albendazole sulfoxide: pharmacokinetic effects of inhibitors. hat. Pharm. (2003) 263:123–132.
  • MERINO G, MOLINA AJ, GARCIA JL, PULIDO MM, PRIETO JG, ALVAREZ Al: Ginseng increases intestinal elimination of albendazole sulfoxide in the rat. Comp. Biochem. Physiol C. Toxicol Pharmacol (2003) 136:9–15.
  • BENNETT A, GUYATT H: Reducing intestinal nematode infection: efficacy of albendazole and mebendazole. Parasitol Today (2000) 16:71–74.
  • •A concise meta-analysis of the drug efficacy of albendazole and mebendazole against common geohelminths.
  • HORTON J: Albendazole: a review of anthelmintic efficacy and safety in humans. Parasitology(2000) 121:S113–S132.
  • •Well crafted paper with extensive appendices.
  • MCMANUS DP, ZHANG WB, LI J, BARTLEY PB: Echinococcosis. Lancet (2003) 362:1295–1304.
  • ••Terrific paper.
  • CHAVARRIA AP, SWARTZWELDERJC, VILLAREJOS VM, ZELEDON R: Mebendazole, an effective broad-spectrum anthelmintic. Am.J Trop. Med. Hyg. (1973) 22:592–595.
  • DE CLERCQ D, SACKO M, BEHNKE J, GILBERT F, DORNY P, VERCRUYSSE J: Failure of mebendazole in treatment of human hookworm infections in the southern region of Mali. Am. j Trop. Med. Hyg. (1997) 57:25–30.
  • ALBONICO M, BICKLE Q, RAMSAN M, MONTRESOR A, SAVIOLI L, TAYLOR M: Efficacy of mebendazole and levamisole alone or in combination against intestinal nematode infections after repeated targeted mebendazole treatment in Zanzibar. Bull. World Health Organ. (2003) 81:343–352.
  • GROVER JK, VATS V, UPPAL G, YADAV S: Anthelmintics: a review. Trop. Castroenterol (2001) 22:180–189.
  • JANSSEN PA: The levamisole story. Frog. Drug Res. (1976) 20:347–383.
  • ••Enjoyable reading and insights of thediscovery process of levirrtasol.
  • KOUASSI E, CAILLE G, LERY L, LARIVIERE L, VEZINA M: Novel assay and pharmacokinetics of levamisole and p-hydroxylevamisole in human plasma and urine. Biopharm. Drug Dispos. (1986) 7:71–89.
  • ADAMS JG: Pharmacokinetics of levamisole. Rheumatol (1978) 4 (Suppl.) :137–142.
  • MILLER MJ: Use of levamisole in parasitic infections. Drugs (1980) 20:122–130.
  • GOIHMAN-YAHR M: Antihelmintic and antiparasitic drugs: unapproved uses or indications. Clin. Dermatol (2000) 18:113–117.
  • AUSTIN WC, COURTNEY W, DANILEWICZ JC et al.: Pyrantel tartrate, a new anthelmintic effective against infections of domestic animals. Nature (1966) 212:1273–1274.
  • HOWES HL Jr, LYNCH JE: Anthelmintic studies with pyrantel. I. Therapeutic and prophylactic efficacy against the enteral stages of various helminths in mice and dogs. Parasitol (1967) 53:1085–1091.
  • AUBRY ML, COWELL P, DAVEY MJ, SHEVDE S: Aspects of the pharmacology of a new anthelmintic: pyrantel. Br. Pharmacol (1970) 38:332–344.
  • FASANMADE AA, AKANNI AO, OLANIYI AA, TAYO F: Bioequivalence of pyrantel pamoate dosage forms in healthy human subjects. Biopharm. Drug Dispos. (1994) 15:527–534.
  • VILLAREJOS VM, ARGUEDAS-GAMBOA JA, EDUARTE E, SWARTZWELDERJC: Experiences with the anthelmintic pyrantel pamoate. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. (1971) 20:842–845.
  • ISLAM N, CHOWDHURY NA: Mebendazole and pyrantel pamoate as broad-spectrum anthelmintics. Southeast Asian I Trop. Med. Public Health (1976) 7:81–84.
  • KALE OO, BAMMEKE AO, NWANKWO EO: Field trials of pyrantel pamoate (Combantrin) in Ascaris, hookworm and Trichuris infections. Afr. Med. Med. ScL (1982) 11:23–31.
  • ANTHELMINTIC STUDY GROUP ON ENTEROBIASIS: A comparative evaluation of mebendazole, piperazine and pyrantel in threadworm infection. Indian Pediam. (1984) 21:623–628.
  • REYNOLDSON JA, BEHNKE JM, PALLANT LJ et al.: Failure of pyrantel in
  • •• treatment of human hookworm infections (Ancylostoma duodenale) in the Kimberley region of north west Australia. Acta Bop. (1997) 68:301–312.
  • ST GEORGIEV V: Pharmacotherapy of ascariasis. Expert Opin. Pharmacother: (2001) 2:223–239.
  • SWARTZWELDER C, MILLER JH, SAPPENFIELD RW: The treatment of cases of ascariasis with piperazine citrate with observations of the effect of the drug on other helminthiases. Jim. .1. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1955) 4:326–331.
  • FARID Z, BASSILY S, MINER WE HASSAN A, LAUGHLIN LW: Comparative single/dose treatment of hookworm and roundworm infections with levamisole, pyrantel and bephenium. .1. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1977) 80:107–108.
  • FUEHRMANN G: Zur Frage der Resorption und Ausscheidung von Piperazinsalzen. Z Tropenmed. Parasitol (1957) 8:83–90.
  • SEFTEL HC, HEINZ HJ: Comparison of piperazine and tetramisole in the treatment of ascariasis. Br. Med. J. (1968) 4:93–95.
  • RIM HJ, HA JVV, LEE JS, HYUN I, UH KB: Pyrantel embonate in mass treatment of ascariasis and comparison with piperazine adipate and santonin-kainic acid complex. Korean .1. Parasitol (1974) 12:141–146.
  • WHO: WHO model prescribing information. Drugs used in parasitic diseases (second edn), World Health Organization, Geneva (1995).
  • CAMPBELL WC, FISHER MH, STAPLEY EO, ALBERS-SCHONBERG G, JACOB TA: Ivermectin: a potent new antiparasitic agent. Science (1983) 221:823–828.
  • •Provides detailed information on the discovery and chemistry of ivermectin and its use in veterinary medicine.
  • OTTESEN EA, CAMPBELL WC: Ivermectin in human medicine. .1. Antimicrob. Chemother: (1994) 34:195–203.
  • •A detailed summary of the clinical use of ivermectin.
  • BORSBOOM GJJM, BOATIN BA, NAGELKERKE NJD et al: Impact of ivermectin on onchocerciasis transmission: assessing the empirical evidence that repeated ivermectin mass treatments may lead to elimination/eradication in West-Africa. Filaria. (2003) 2:8.
  • GARDON J, GARDON-WENDEL N, NGANGUE D, KAMGNO J, CHIPPAUX J-P, BOUSSINESQ M: Serious reactions after mass treatment of onchocerciasis with ivermectin in an area endemic for Loa loa infection. Lancet (1997) 350:18–22.
  • REN HN, CHENG BZ, ZHUANG ZN: Experimental therapeutic efficacy of a new anti-hookworm drug - tribendimidin. Chin. J. Parasitol Pam. Dis. (1987) 5:262–264.
  • •The first account of the anthelmintic effects of tribendimidine.
  • REN HN, YANG YQ, CHENG BZ et al: Toxicity of tribendimidin, a new anti-hookworm drug. ChM. I Parasitol Pam. Dis. (1988) 6:199–201.
  • XIAO SH, REN HN, DAI ZQ, YANG YQ, ZHANG CW: Light and electron microscopic observations on effects of tribendimidin on cuticle of Necator americanus and small intestinal mucosa of infected golden hamsters. Acta Pharmacol Sin. (1989) 10:90–92.
  • XU SE, WU ZX, JIN LQ: Effect of tribendimidine on the ultrastructure of Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus. Endemic Diseases Bullet-ha (2003) 18:12–13.
  • YANG YQ, YANG HZ, REN HN, CHENG BZ: Histological and histochemical effects of tribendimidine on Necator americanus. Acta Pharmacol SM. (1988) 9:264–267.
  • SUN FH, WU ZX, QIAN YX et al: Field trials on the efficacy of tribendimidine against intstinal nematodiasis. Endemic Diseases Bulletin (1999) 14:75–78.
  • CAO HJ, SUN FH, QIAN YX et al: Clinical observation on the efficacy of tribendimidine against hookworm infections. Chin. I Parasit. Dis. Con. (2000) 13:184–186.
  • HUANG YX, ZHOU JX, XUE ZQ et al.: Clinical observations on the treatment of hookworm, Ascaris and Trichuris infection with oxibendazole. Chin. J. Parasitol Para. Dis. (1990) 8:100–103.
  • HORTON J: Human gastrointestinal helminth infections: are they now neglected diseases? Trends Parasitol (2003) 19:527–531.
  • LIM JK: Anthelminthic effect of oxantel and oxantel-pyrantel in intestinal nematode infections. Drugs (1978) 15 (Suppl. 1):99–103.
  • PELDAN K, PITKANEN T: Treatment of Trichuris trichiura infection with a single dose of oxantel pamoate. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. (1982) 14:297–299.
  • ALBONICO M, BICKLE Q, HAJI HJ et al.: Evaluation of the efficacy of pyrantel-oxantel for the treatment of soil-transmitted nematode infections. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (2002) 96:685–690.
  • GILLES HM, HOFFMAN PS: Treatment of intestinal parasitic infections: a review of nitazoxanide. Trends Parasitol (2002) 18:95–97.
  • ALBONICO M: Methods to sustain drug efficacy in helminth control programmes. Acta Bop. (2003) 86:233–242.
  • GEERTS S, GRYSEELS B: Drug resistance in human helminths: current situation and lessons from livestock. Clin. Microbial. Rev (2000) 13:207–222.
  • ••An excellent review on drug resistancein human schistosomes and intestinal nematodes.
  • UTZINGERJ, KEISER J, XIAO SH, TANNER M, SINGER BH: Combination chemotherapy of schistosomiasis in laboratory studies and clinical trials. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. (2003) 47:1487–1495.
  • •The first comprehensive review of combination chemotherapy in schistosomiasis.
  • SHAW JR, BRAMMER KW: The treatment of experimental schistosomiasis with a combination of oxamniquine and praziquantel. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1983) 77:39–40.
  • PUGH RNH, TEESDALE CH: Synergy of concurrent low dose oxamniquine and praziquantel in schistosomiasis. Br. Med. J. (1983) 287:877–878.
  • CREASEY AM, TAYLOR P, THOMAS JEP: Dosage trial of a combination of oxamniquine and praziquantel in the treatment of schistosomiasis in Zimbabwean schoolchildren. Cent. Afr. J. Med. (1986) 32:165–167.
  • ZWINGENBERGER K, NOGUEIRA QUEIROZ JA, POGGENSEE U et al.: Efficacy of oxamniquine, praziquantel and a combination of both drugs in schistosomiasis mansoni in Brazil. Rev Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo (1987) 29:305–311.
  • XIAO SH, YOU JQ, MEI JY, GUO HF, RAO PY, TANNER M: Effect of praziquantel together with artemether on Schistosoma japonicum parasites of different ages in rabbits. Parasitol mt. (2000) 49:25–30.
  • UTZINGER J, CHOLLET J, YOU JQ, MEI JY, TANNER M, XIAO SH: Effect of combined treatment with praziquantel and artemether on Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma mansoni in experimentally infected animals. Acta Bop. (2001) 80:9–18.
  • DE CLERCQ D, VERCRUYSSE J, VERLE P, KONGS A, DIOP M: What is the effect of combining artesunate and praziquantel in the treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infections? Bop. Med. Int. Health (2000) 5:744–746.
  • MANI TR, RAJENDRAN R, MUNIRATHINAM A et al.: Efficacy of co-administration of albendazole and diethylcarbamazine against geohelminthiases: a study from South India. Bop. Med. Int. Health (2002) 7:541–548.
  • BELIZARIO VY, AMARILLO ME, DE LEON WU, DE LOS REYES AE, BUGAYONG MG, MACATANGAY BJ: A comparison of the efficacy of single doses of albendazole, ivermectin, and diethylcarbamazine alone or in combinations against Ascaris and Trichuris spp. Bull. World Health Organ. (2003) 81:35–42.
  • BEACH MJ, STREIT TG, ADDISS DG, PROSPERE R, ROBERTS JM, LAMMIE PJ: Assessment of combined ivermectin and albendazole for treatment of intestinal helminth and Wuchereria bancrofti infections in Haitian schoolchildren. Am. I Bop. Med. Hyg. (1999) 60:479–486.
  • SIRIVICHAYAKUL C, POJJAROEN-ANANT C, WISETSING P et al.: A comparative trial of albendazole alone versus combination of albendazole and praziquantel for treatment of Trichuris trichiura infection. Southeast Asian J. Bop. Med. Public Health (2001) 32:297–301.
  • MOHAMED AE, YASAWY MI, AL KARAWI MA: Combined albendazole and praziquantel versus albendazole alone in the treatment of hydatid disease. Hepatogastroenterology (1998) 45:1690–1694.
  • SHIELD J: A study of the effectiveness of mebendazole and pyrantel pamoate as a combination anthelmintic in Papua New Guinean children. RN G. Med. J. (1985) 28:41–44.
  • WHO: The world health report 2003: shaping the future World Health Organization, Geneva (2003).
  • ANDREWS P: A summary of the efficacy of praziquantel against schistosomes in animal experiments and notes on its mode of action. Arzneimittelforschung (1981) 31:538–541.
  • LI SW, WU LJ, LIU ZD et al: Studies on prophylactic effect of artesunate on schistosomiasis japonica. Chin. Med. J. (1996) 109:848–853.
  • DE CLERCQ D, VERCRUYSSE J, VERLE P, NIASSE F, KONGS A, DIOP M: Efficacy of artesunate against Schistosoma mansoni infections in Richard Toll, Senegal. Trans. R. Soc. Bop. Med. Hyg. (2000) 94:90–91.
  • PENE P, VINCENTELLI JM, SOULA G, DELMONT J, ROSSIGNOL JF: Treatment of intestinal nematode infections with albendazole. Preliminary results. Bull. Soc. Pathol Exot. Filiales (1981) 74:590–594.
  • BELL WJ, NASSIF S: Comparison of pyrantel pamoate and piperazine phosphate in the treatment of ascariasis. Am. J. Bop. Med. Hyg. (1971) 20:584–588.
  • WU LJ, LI SW, XUAN YX etal.: Field application of artesunate in prophylaxis of schistosomiasis: an observation of 346 cases. Chin. J. Schist°. Con. (1995) 7:323–327.
  • ZHANG SJ, LIN DD, LIU YM et al: Clinical trials on preventive effect of artesunate on schistosomiasis japonica. Mod. Diagn. Treat. (2000) 11:68–72.
  • TIAN ZY, LIU DS, XIAO ZW et al: A cost-effect study of artesunate in the prophylaxis of schistosomiasis in an endemic area. Chin. J. Schist°. Con. (2001) 13:299–300.
  • XU MS: The effect analysis of using artesunate to prevent schistosome infection in the field. Chin. I Parasit. Dis. Con. (2001) 14:26–27.
  • LU GY, LIN GJ, SUN MX, CUI JF, WU QZ, S: U. Probe on scheme with oral artesunate protecting people from infection of schistosome. Chin. .1 Parasit. Dis. Con. (2000) 13:212–214.
  • LI HY, LIU ZD, HU LS et al: Observation on the prevention of schistosomiasis japonica by administration of artesunate long-term. Chin. I Parasit. Dis. Con. (1999) 12:214–215.
  • XU MS, ZHANG SQ, LI SW etal.: Field application of oral artesunate for preventing Schistosoma japonicum infection. Chin. J. Parasitol Pam. Dis. (1999) 17:241–243.
  • TIAN ZY, XIAO SH, XIAO JW et al: Reduction of Schistosoma japonicum infection in an endemic area in islet with embankment after prophylaxis with oral artemether throughout the transmission season. Chin. Parasitol Para. Dis. (1997) 15:208–211.
  • WANG JL, XIAO SH, YANG Z et al: Effect of oral artemether in controlling schistosomiasis in Yunnan mountainous endemic area. Chin. I Parasitol Para. Dis. (1997) 15:138–142.
  • XIAO SH, WANG JL, WANG CZ et al: Protection of the residents from schistosome infection using oral artemether in mountainous endemic area. Chin. J. Parasitol Pam. Dis. (1996) 14:11–14.
  • XU MS, XIAO SH, SONG Q et al: Observation on the effect of artemether on controlling schistosomiasis japonica in an endemic area of marshland. Chin. J. Parasitol Pam. Dis. (1997) 15:212–215.
  • XIAO SH, SHI ZG, ZHUO SJ etal.: Field studies on the preventive effect of oral artemether against schistosomal infection. Chin. Med. J. (1996) 109:272–275.
  • SONG Y, XIAO SH, WU W etal.: Preventive effect of artemether on schistosome infection. Chin. Med. J. (1998) 111:123–127.
  • INYANG-ETOH PC, EJEZIE GC, USEH ME INYANG ETOH EC: Efficacy of artesunate in the treatment of urinary schistosomiasis in an endemic community in Nigeria. Ann. Bop. Med. Parasitol (2004) (In Press).
  • http://www.who.int/wormcontrol
  • http://www.schisto.org

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.