108
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Emerging therapies in multiple sclerosis

, &
Pages 797-816 | Published online: 31 Oct 2005

Bibliography

  • COMPSTON A, COLES A: Multiple sclerosis. Lancet (2002) 359:1221–1231.
  • KURTZKE JF: Epidemiology and multiple sclerosis. Rev. Neurol (2002) 35:1177.
  • MARRIE RA: Environmental risk factors in multiple sclerosis aetiology. Lancet Neurol (2004) 3(12):709–718.
  • WILLER CJ, DYMENT DA, RISCH NJ, SADOVNICK AD, EBERS GC; CANADIAN COLLABORATIVE STUDY GROUP: Twin concordance and sibling recurrence rates in multiple sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2003) 100(22):12877–12882.
  • MARTYN CN, GALE CR: The epidemiology of multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand. Suppl. (1997) 169:3–7.
  • GALE CR, MARTYN CN: Migrant studies in multiple sclerosis. Prog NeurobioL (1995) 47:425–448.
  • GILDEN DH: Infectious causes of multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol (2005) 4(3):195–202.
  • KURTZKE JF, HYLLESTED K: Multiple sclerosis in the Faroe Islands: I. Clinical and epidemiological features. Ann. Neurol. (1979) 5(1):6–21.
  • SAUL RF, HAYAT G, SELHORST JB: Visual evoked potentials during hyperthermia. j Neuroophthalmol (1995) 15(2):70–78.
  • MCDONALD WI, COMPSTON A. EDAN G et al.: Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines from the International Panel on the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. (2001) 50(1):121–127.
  • MILLER D, BARKHOF F, MONTALBAN X, THOMPSON A, FILIPPI M: Clinically isolated syndromes suggestive of multiple sclerosis, part I: naturalhistory, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and prognosis. Lancet Neurol (2005) 4(5):281–288.
  • MILLER D, BARKHOF F, MONTALBAN X, THOMPSON A, FILIPPI M: Clinically isolated syndromes suggestive of multiple sclerosis, part 2: non-conventional MRI, recovery processes, and management. Lancet Neurol. (2005) 4(6):341–348.
  • TRAPP BD, PETERSON J, RANSOHOFF RM, RUDICK R, MORK S, BO L: Axonal transection in the lesions of multiple sclerosis. N Engl. J. Med. (1998) 338(5):278–285.
  • JACOBS LD, BECK RW, SIMON JH et al.: Intramuscular interferon beta-la therapy initiated during a first demyelinating event in multiple sclerosis: CHAMPS Study Group. N Engl. J. Med. (2000) 343(13):898–904.
  • SOSPEDRA M, MARTIN R: Immunologyof multiple sclerosis. Ann. Rev. Immunol (2005) 23:683-747. Review of immunology MS.
  • BARNETT MH, PRINEAS JW: Relapsing and remitting multiple sclerosis: pathology of the newly forming lesion. Ann. Neurol (2004) 55(4):458–468. Important pathological study. Alters our understanding of pathophysiology.
  • PETERSON JW, BO L, MORK S, CHANG A, TRAPP BD: Transected neurites, apoptotic neurons, and reduced inflammation in cortical multiple sclerosis lesions. Ann. Neurol (2001) 50(3):389–400.
  • LASSMANN H, BRUCK W, LUCHINETTI C: Heterogeneity of multiple sclerosis pathogenesis: implications for diagnosis and therapy. Trends Mol Med. (2001) 7(3):115–121.
  • FOOTE AK, BLAKEMORE WF: Inflammation stimulates remyelination in areas of chronic demyelination. Brain (2005) 128(Pt 3):528–539.
  • HARTUNG HP, BAR-OR A. ZOUKUS Y:What do we know about the mechanism of action of disease-modifying treatments in MS?J. Neurol. (2004) 251\(Suppl. 5):v12-v29. Good review of existing treatments and mechanism of action.
  • HEMMER B, CEPOK S, NESSLER S, SOMMER N: Pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis: an update on immunology. Curr. Opin. Neurol. (2002) 15(3):227–231.
  • WOLINSKY JS; PROMiSe TRIAL STUDY GROUP: The PROMiSe trial: baseline data review and progress report. Mult. Scler. (2004) 10\(Suppl. 1):565–571.
  • LEARY SM, MILLER DH, STEVENSON V1,, BREX PA, CHARD DT, THOMPSON AJ: Interferon beta-la in primary progressive MS: an exploratory, randomized,controlled trial. Neurology (2003) 60(1):44–51.
  • MONTALBAN X: Overview of European pilot study of interferon-Bib in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. (2004) 10\(Suppl. 1):562.
  • LEPPERT D, WAUBANT E, BURK MR, OKSENBERG JR, HAUSER SL: Interferon-Blb inhibits gelatinase secretion and in vitro migration of human T cells: a possible mechanism for treatment efficacy in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. (1996) 40(6):846–852.
  • IFNI3 MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS STUDY GROUP: Interferon-Bib is effective in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. I. Clinical results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology (1993) 43:655–661.
  • JACOBS LD, COOKFAIR DL, RUDICK RA et al.; THE MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH GROUP: Intramuscular interferon-Bia for disease progression in relapsing multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol (1996) 39:285–294.
  • PRISMS STUDY GROUP: Randomised,double-blind, placebo-controlled study of interferon-Bia in relapsing/remitting multiple sclerosis. Lancet (1998) 352:1498–1504.
  • MUNSCHAUER FE, KINKEL RP: Managing side effects of interferon beta in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Clin. Ther. (1997) 19:883–893.
  • MALUCCHI S, SALA A, GILLI F et al.: Neutralizing antibodies reduce the efficacy of betaIEN during treatment of multiple sclerosis. Neurology (2004) 62:2031–2037.
  • BERTOLOTTO A, GILLI F, SALA A et al.: Persistent neutralizing antibodies abolish the interferon-I3 bioavailability in MS patients. Neurology (2003) 60:634–639.
  • COOK SD, QUINLESS JR, JOTKOWITZ A, BEATON P: Serum IFN neutralizing antibodies and neopterin levels in a cross-section of MS patients. Neurology (2001) 57:1080–1084.
  • PANITCH H, GOODIN DS, FRANCIS G et al.: Randomized, comparative study of interferon-Bla treatment regimens in MS: The EVIDENCE Trial. Neurology (2002) 59:1496–1506.
  • NO AUTHORS LISTED: Neutralizing antibodies during treatment of multiple sclerosis with interferon-Blb: experience during the first three years. The IFNB Multiple Sclerosis Study Group and the University of British Columbia MS/MRI Analysis Group. Neurology (1996) 47:889–894.
  • TEITELBAUM D, AHARONI R, KLINGER E et al.: Oral glatiramer acetate in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: clinical and immunological studies. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (2004) 1029:239–249.
  • TEITELBAUM D, AHARONI R, ARNON R, SELA M: Specific inhibition of the T-cell response to myelin basic protein by the synthetic copolymer Cop 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1988) 85(24):9724–9728.
  • MILLER A, SHAPIRO S, GERSHTEIN R et al: Treatment of multiple sclerosis with copolymer-1 (Copaxone): implicating mechanisms of TH1 to TH2/TH3 immune-deviation. J. Neuroimmunol (1998) 92(1-2):113–121.
  • KIM HJ, IFERGAN I, ANTEL JP et al: Type 2 monocyte and microglia differentiation mediated by glatiramer acetate therapy in patients with multiple sclerosis. J. Immunol (2004) 172(11):7144–7153.
  • STADELMANN C, KERSCHENSTEINER M, MISGELD T, BRUCK W, HOHLFELD R, LASSMANN H: BDNF and gp145trkB in multiple sclerosis brain lesions: neuroprotective interactions between immune and neuronal cells? Brain (2002) 125:75–85.
  • ZIEMSSEN T, KUMPFEL T, KLINKERT WE, NEUHAUS O, HOHLFELD R: Glatiramer acetate-specific T-helper 1- and 2-type cell lines produce BDNF: implications for multiple sclerosis therapy. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Brain (2002) 125:2381–2391.
  • AHARONI R, KAYHAN B, EILAM R, SELA M, ARNON R: Glatiramer acetate-specific T cells in the brain express T helper 2/3 cytokines and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in situ. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (2003) 100(24):14157–14162.
  • MILLER DM, WEINSTOCK-GUTTMAN B, BETHOUX F et al: A meta-analysis of methylprednisolone in recovery from multiple sclerosis exacerbations. Mult. Scler. (2000) 6(4):267–273.
  • BRUSEFERRI F, CANDELISE L: Steroids for multiple sclerosis and optic neuritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. J. Neurol (2000) 247(6):435–442.
  • MILLER DH, THOPMSON AJ, MORRISSEY SP et al: High dose steroids in acute relapses of multiple sclerosis: MRI evidence for a possible mechanism of therapeutic effect. J. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1992) 55(6):450–453.
  • BARKHOF F, HOMMES OR, SCHELTENS P, VALK J: Quantitative MRI changes in gadolinium-DTPA enhancement after high-dose intravenous methylprednisolone in multiple sclerosis. Neurology (1991) 41(8):1219–1222.
  • OLIVIERI RL, VALENTINO P, RUSSO C et al.: Randomized trial comparing two different high doses of methylprednisolone in MS: a clinical and MRI study. Neurology (1998) 50(6):1833–1836.
  • ZIVADINOV R, RUDICK R, DE MASI R et al.: Effects of IV methylprednisolone on brain atrophy in relapsing-remitting MS. Neurology (2001) 57:1239–1247.
  • GOODKIN DE, KINKEL RP, WEINSTOCK-GUTTMANN B et al: A Phase II study of i.v. methylprednisolone in secondary-progressive multiple sclerosis. Neurology (1998) 51(1):239–245.
  • GASPERINI C, POZZILLI C, BASTIANELLO S et al: Effect of steroids on Gd-enhancing lesions before and during recombinant beta interferon la treatment in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. Neurology (1998) 50(2):403–406.
  • RICHERT ND, OSTUNI JL, BASH CN, LEIST TP, MCFARLAND HF, FRANK JA: Interferon-Blb and intravenous methylprednisolone promote lesion recovery in multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. (2001) 7(1):49–58.
  • POZZILLI C, ANTONINI G, BAGNATO F: Monthly corticosteroids decrease neutralizing antibodies to IFN-Bib: a randomized trial in MS. J. Neurol (2002) 249:50–56.
  • LUBLIN FD, LAVASA M, VITT C, KNOBLER RL: Suppression of acute and relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis with mitoxantrone. Clin. Immunol Immunopathol (1987) 45(1):122–128.
  • EDAN G, MILLER D, CLANET M et al: Therapeutic effect of mitoxantrone combined with methylprednisolone in multiple sclerosis: a randomised multicentre study of active disease using MRI and clinical criteria. J. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1997) 62(2):112–118.
  • HARTUNG HP, GONSETTE R, KONIG N et al; MITOXANTRONE IN MULTIPLE SSCLEROSIS STUDY GROUP (MIMS): Mitoxantrone in progressive multiple sclerosis: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet (2002) 360(9350):2018–2025.
  • FIDLER JM, DEJOY SQ, GIBBONS JJ Jr: Selective immunomodulation by the antineoplastic agent mitoxantrone. Suppression of B lymphocyte function. Immunol (1986) 137(2):727–732.
  • GHALIE RG, MAUCH E, EDAN G et al: Cardiac adverse effects associated with mitoxantrone (Novantrone) therapy in patients with MS. Neurology (2002) 59:909–913.
  • BRASSAT D, RECHER C, WAUBANT E et al.: Therapy related acute myeloblastic leukaemia after mitoxantrone treatment in a patient with MS. Neurology (2002) 59:954–955.
  • GHALIE RG, EDAN G, LAURENT M et al.: A study of therapy-related acute leukaemia after mitoxantrone therapy for MS. Mult. Scler. (2002) 5:441–445.
  • EDAN G: Immunosuppressive therapy in multiple sclerosis. Neurol Sci. (2005) 26\(Suppl. 1):s18.
  • EDAN G et al.: Use of Mitoxantrone to treat MS, Chapter 25. In: MS Therapeutics, 2nd Edition. Martin Dunitz, London (2003).
  • YUDKIN PL, ELLISON GW, GHEZZI et al.: Overview of azathioprine treatment in multiple sclerosis. Lancet (1991) 338(8774):1051–1055.
  • PALACE J, ROTHWELL P: New treatments and azathioprine in MS. Lancet (1997) 350(9073):261.
  • SMITH D: Preliminary analysis of a trial of pulse cyclophosphamide in IFN-beta-resistant active MS. J. Neurol. Sci. (2004) 223(1):73–79.
  • PATTI F, AMATO MP, FILIPPI M, GALLO P, TROJANO M, COMI GC: A double blind, placebo-controlled, Phase II, add-on study of cyclophosphamide (CTX) for 24 months in patients affected by multiple sclerosis on a background therapy with interferon-beta study denomination: CYCLIN. J. Neurol. Sci. (2004) 223(1):69–71.
  • GOODKIN D, RUDICK RA, VANDERBRUG MEDENDORP S et al: Low-dose (7,5mg) oral methotrexate reduces the rate of progression in chronic progressive MS. Ann. Neurol (1995) 37:30–40.
  • CALABRESI PA, WILTERDINK JL, ROGG JM, MILLS P, WEBB A, WHARTENBY KA: An open-label trial of combination therapy with interferon-01a and oral methotrexate in MS. Neurology (2002) 58(2):314–317.
  • DALAKAS MC: Mechanism of action of intravenous immunoglobulin and therapeutic considerations in the treatment of autoimmune neurologic diseases. Neurology (1998) 51(6 Suppl. 5):52–58.
  • SORENSEN PS, WANSCHER B, JENSEN CV et al.: Intravenous immunoglobulin G reduces MRI activity in relapsing multiple sclerosis. Neurology (1998) 50(5):1273–1281.
  • ACHIRON A, GABBAY U, GILAD R et al.: Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in multiple sclerosis. Effect on relapses. Neurology (1998) 50(2):398–402.
  • ACHIRON A, KISHNER I, SAROVE-PINHAS I et al.: Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment following the first demyelinating event suggestive of multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch. Neurol (2004) 61(10):1515–1520.
  • LEWANSKA M, SIGER-ZADJEL M, SELMAJ K: No difference in efficacy of two different doses of intravenous immunoglobulins in MS: clinical and MRI assessment. Fur. J. Neurol (2002) 9(6):565–572.
  • FAZEKAS F, DEISENHAMMER F, STRASSER-FUCHS S, NAHLER G, MAMOLI B: Treatment effects of monthly intravenous immunoglobulin on patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: further analyses of the Austrian Immunoglobulin in MS study. Mult. Scler. (1997) 3(2):137–141.
  • KOCER B, YILDIRIM-GUREL S, TALI ET, IRKEC C, ISIK S: The role of qualitative and quantitative MRI assessment of multiple sclerosis lesions according to their in evaluating the efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin G. Neuroradiology (2004) 46(4):287–290.
  • SORENSEN PS, FAZEKAS F, LEE M: Intravenous immunoglobulin G for the treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. Fur. J. Neurol (2002) 9(6):557–563.
  • HOMMES OR, SORENSEN PS, FAZEKAS F et al.: Intravenous immunoglobulin in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis: randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet (2004) 364(9440):1149–1156.
  • ROED HG, LANGKILDE A, SELLEBJERG F et al.: A double-blind, randomized trial of IV immunoglobulin treatment in acute optic neuritis. Neurology (2005) 64(5):804–810.
  • FRENETTE PS, WAGNER DD: Adhesion molecules - Part II: blood vessels and blood cells. N Engl. J. Med. (1996) 335(1):43–45.
  • TUBRIDY N, BEHAN PO, CAPILDEO R et al.: The effect of anti-alpha4 integrin antibody on brain lesion activity in MS. The UK Antegren Study Group. Neurology (1999) 53(3):466–472.
  • MILLER DH, KHAN OA, SHEREMATA WA et al; INTERNATIONAL NATALIZUMAB MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS TRIAL GROUP: A controlled trial of natalizumab for relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl. J. Med. (2003) 348(1):15–23.
  • PAOLILLO A, COLES A, MOLYNEUX P et al.: Quantitative MRI in patients with secondary progressive MS treated with monoclonal antibody Campath 1H. Neurology (1999) 53:751.
  • COLES A, DEANS J, COMPSTON k Campath-1H treatment of multiple sclerosis: lessons from the bedside for the bench. Clin. Neurol Neurosurg. (2004) 106(3):270–274.
  • MOREAU T, COLES A, WING M et al: Transient increase in symptoms associated with cytokine release in patients with MS. Brain (1996) 119:225–237.
  • COLES AJ, WING M, SWITH S et al: Pulsed monoclonal antibody treatment and autoimmune thyroid disease in MS. Lancet (1999) 354(9191):1691–1695.
  • WALDMANN TA, O'SHEA J: The use of antibodies against the IL-2 receptor in transplantation. Curr. Opin. Immunol (1998) 10(5):507–512.
  • VINCENTI F, KIRKMAN R, LIGHTS et al.: Interleukin-2-receptor blockade with daclizumab to prevent acute rejection in renal transplantation. Daclizumab Triple Therapy Study Group. N Engl. J. Med. (1998) 338(3):161–165.
  • ROSE J, LORBERBOUM-GALASKI H, FITZGERALD D et al.: Chimeric cytotoxin 1L2-PE40 inhibits relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Neuroimmuno/ogy (1991) 32:209–217.
  • BIELEKOVA B, RICHERT N, HOWARD T et al: Humanized anti-CD25 (daclizumab) inhibits disease activity in multiple sclerosis patients failing to respond to interferon beta. Proc. Nail. Acad. Sci. USA (2004) 101(23):8705–8708.
  • ROSE JW, WATT HE, WHITE AT, CARLSON NG: Treatment of multiple sclerosis with an anti-interleukin-2 receptor monoclonal antibody. Ann. Neurol (2004) 56(6):864–867.
  • ARCHELOS JJ, STORCH MK, HARTUNG HP: The role of B cells and autoantibodies in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. (2000) 47(6):694–706.
  • PESTRONK A, FLORENCE J, MILLER T, CHOKSI R, AL-LOZI MT, LEVINE TD: Treatment of IgM antibody associated polyneuropathies using rituximab. j Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry (2003) 74(4):485–489.
  • YOUSSEF S, STUVE O, PATARROYO JC et al.: The HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, atorvastatin, promotes a TH2 bias and reverses paralysis in central nervous system autoimmune disease. Nature (2002) 420(6911):78–84.
  • GREENWOOD J, WALTERS CE, PRYCE G et al.: Lovastatin inhibits brain endothelial cell Rho-mediated lymphocyte migration and attenuates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. FASEB J. (2003) 17(8):905–907.
  • NEUHAUS O, STRASSER-FUCHS S, FAZEKAS F et al.: Statins as immunomodulators: comparison with interferon-beta lb in MS. Neurology (2002) 59(7):990–997.
  • SENA A, PEDROSA R, GRACA MORAIS M: Therapeutic potential of lovastatin in multiple sclerosis. Neurol (2003) 250(0:754–755.
  • VOLLMER T, KEY L, DURKALAKSI V et al.: Oral simvastatin treatment in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Lancet (2004) 363(9421):1607–1608.
  • SEHGAL SN: Sirolimus: its discovery, biological properties, and mechanism of action. Transplant Proc. (2003) 35(3 Suppl.):75–145.
  • CONFAVREUX C, HUTCHINSON M, HOURS MM, CORTINOVIS-TOURNIAIRE P, MOREAU T: Rate of pregnancy-related relapse in multiple sclerosis. Pregnancy in Multiple Sclerosis Group. N Engl J. Med. (1998) 339(5):285–291.
  • KRISHNAN L, GUILBERT LJ, RUSSELL AS, WEGMANN TG, MOSMANN TR, BELOSOVIC M: Pregnancy impairs resistance of C57BL/6 mice to Leishmania major infection and causes decreased antigen-specific IFN-y response and increased production of T helper 2 cytokines. j Immunol (1996) 156(2):644–652.
  • KIM S, LIVA SM, DALAL MA, VERITY MA, VOSHKUL RR: Estriol ameliorates autoimmune demyelinating disease: implications for multiple sclerosis. Neurology (1999) 52(6):1230–1238.
  • SICOTTE NL, LIVA SM, KLUTCH R et al.: Treatment of multiple sclerosis with the pregnancy hormone estriol. Ann. Neurol (2002) 52(4):421–428.
  • SUZUMURA A, SAWADA M, MAKINO M, TAKAYANGI T: Propentofylline inhibits production of TNFalpha and infection of LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus in glial cells. Neurovirol (1998) 5:553–559.
  • SUZUMURA A, ITO A, YOSHIKAWA M, SAWADA M: Ibudilast suppresses TNF-a production by glial cells functioning mainly as type III phosphodiesterase inhibitor in the CNS. Brain Res. (1999) 837(1–2):203-212.
  • FUJIMOTO T, SAKODA S, FUJIMURA H, YANAGIHARA T: Ibudilast, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in Dark August rats. Neuroimmunol (1999) 95(1-2):35–42.
  • GERMAIN RN, STEFANOVA I: The dynamics of T-cell receptor signalling: complex orchestration and the key roles of tempo and cooperation. Ann. Rev. Immunol (1999) 17:467–522.
  • BIELEKOVA B, GOODWIN B, RICHERT N et al: Encephalitogenic potential of the myelin basic protein peptide (amino acids 83-99) in multiple sclerosis: results of a Phase II clinical trial with an altered peptide ligand. Nat. Med. (2000) 10:1167–1175.
  • KAPPOS L, COMI G, PANITCH H et al.: Induction of a non-encephalitogenic Type 2 T helper-cell autoimmune response in multiple sclerosis after administration of an altered peptide ligand in a placebo- controlled, randomized Phase II trial. The Altered Peptide Ligand in Relapsing MS Study Group. Nat. Med. (2000) 10:1176–1182.
  • SHUKALIAK QUANDT J, BORRAS E, PRAT E et al.: Peptidic complex mixtures as therapeutic agents in CNS autoimmunity. Mol Immunol (2004) 40(14-15):1075–1087.
  • VANDENBARK AA, CHOU YK, WHITHAM R et al: Treatment of multiple sclerosis with T-cell receptor peptides: results of a double-blind pilot trial. Nat. Med. (1996) 10:1109–1115.
  • VANDENBARK AA, VAINIENE M, ARIAIL K, MILLER SD, OFFNER H: Prevention and treatment of relapsing autoimmune encephalomyelitis with myelin peptide-coupled splenocytes. J. Neurosci. Res. (1996) 45(4):430–438.
  • BOURDETTE DN, WHITHAM RH, CHOU YK et al.: Immunity to TCR peptides in multiple sclerosis. I. Successful immunization of patients with synthetic V beta 5.2 and V beta 6.1 CDR2 peptides. J. Immunol (1994) 152(5):2510–2519.
  • MORGAN EE, NARDO CJ, DIVELEY JP et al.: Vaccination with a CDR2 BV652/ 6S5 peptide in adjuvant induces peptide-specific T-cell responses in patients with multiple sclerosis. J. Neurosci. Res. (2001) 64(3):298–301.
  • HERMANS G, DENZER U, LOHSE A, RAUS J, STINESSEN P: Cellular and humoral immune responses against autoreactive T cells in multiple sclerosis patients after T-cell vaccination. J. Autoimmun. (1999) 13(2):233–246.
  • ZHANG JZ, RIVERA VM, TEJADA-SIMON MV: T-cell vaccination in multiple sclerosis: results of a preliminary study. J. Neurol. (2002) 249(2):212–218.
  • ACHIRON A, LAVIE G, KISHNER I et al.: T-cell vaccination in multiple sclerosis relapsing-remitting nonresponders patients. Clin. Immunol (2004) 113(2):155–160.
  • KORN T, MAGNUS T, TOKYA K, JUNG S: Modulation of effector cell functions in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by leflunomide - mechanisms independent of pyrimidine depletion. J. Leukoc. Biol. (2004) 76:950–960.
  • NAKAJIMA A, YAMANAKA H, KAMATANI N: [Leflunomide: Clinical effectiveness and mechanism of action]. Clin. Calcium. (2003) 13(0:771–775.
  • KORN T, TOYKA K, HARTUNG HP, JUNG S: Suppression of experimental autoimmune neuritis by leflunomide. Brain (2001) 124:1791–1802.
  • YAO HW, LI J, CHEN JQ, XU SY: A 771726, the active metabolite of leflunomide, inhibits TNF-a and IL-1 from Kupffer cells. Inflammation (2004) 28(2):97–103.
  • SMOLEN JS, EMERY P, KALDEN JR et al.: The efficacy of leflunomide monotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis: towards the goals of disease modifying antirheumatic drug therapy. J. Rheumatol Suppl. (2004) 71:13–20.
  • LI DKB, O'CONNOR P, FREEDMAN M et al; on behalf of the TERIFLUNOMIDE MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS TRIAL GROUP: Preliminary results teriflunomide. Oral teriflunomide is safe and effective in multiple sclerosis with relapses: results of a randomised, placebo-controlled Phase II study. ECTRIMS (2004) abstracts.
  • MCALLISTER LD, BEATTY PG, ROSE J: Allogeneic bone marrow transplant for chronic myelogenous leukemia in a patient with multiple sclerosis. Bone Marrow Transplant. (1997) 19(4):395–397.
  • MARMONT AM: Immune ablation followed by allogeneic or autologous bone marrow transplantation: a new treatment for severe autoimmune diseases? Stem Cells (1994) 12(1):125–135.
  • MANDALFINO P, RICE G, SMITH A, KLEIN JL, RYSTEDT L, EBERS GC: Bone marrow transplantation in multiple sclerosis. J. NeuroL (2000) 247(9):691–695.
  • BLANCO Y, SAIZ k CARRERAS E, GRAUS F: Autologous haematopoietic-stem-cell transplantation for multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol (2005) 4(1):54–63.
  • MANCARDI GL, SACCARDI R, FILLIPPI M et al.; ITALIAN GITMO-NEURO INTERGROUP ON AUTOLOGOUS HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION FOR MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS: Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation suppresses Gd-enhanced MRI activity in MS. Neurology (2001) 57(1):62–68.
  • FASSAS A, PASSWEG JR, ANAGNOSTOPOULOUS A et al.; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE WORKING PARTY OF THE EBMT (EUROPEAN GROUP FOR BONE AND MARROW TRANSPLANTATION): Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for multiple sclerosis. A retrospectivemulticenter study. J. NeuroL (2002) 249(8):1088–1097.
  • SACCARDI R, MANCARDI GL, SOLARI A et al.: Autologous HSCT for severe progressive multiple sclerosis in a multicentre trial: impact on disease activity and quality of life. Blood (2005) 105(6):2601–2607.
  • YONG VW, POWER C, FORSYTH P, EDWARDS DR: Metalloproteinases in biology and pathology of the nervous system. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. (2001) 2(7):502–511.
  • BRUNDULA V REWCASTLE NB, METZ LM, BERNARD CC, YONG VW: Targeting leukocyte MMPs and transmigration: minocycline as a potential therapy for multiple sclerosis. Brain (2002) 125(Pt 6):1297–308.
  • POPOVIC N, SCHUBART A. GOETZ BD, ZHANG SC, LININGTON C, DUNCAN ID: Inhibition of autoimmune encephalomyelitis by a tetracycline. Ann. Neurol (2002) 51(2):215–223.
  • METZ LM, ZHANG Y, YEUNG M et al: Minocycline reduces gadolinium-enhancing magnetic resonance imaging lesions in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol (2004) 55(5):756.
  • ELKAYAM O, YARON M, CASPI D: Minocycline-induced autoimmune syndromes: an overview. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. (1999) 28(6):392–397.
  • MORINI M, ROCCATAGLIATA L, DELLEVA R et al: Alpha-lipoic acid is effective in prevention and treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. NeuroimmunoL (2004) 148(1-2):146–153.
  • MARRACCI GH, MCKEON GP, MARQUARDT WE, WINTER RW, RISCOE MK, BOURDETTE DN: Alpha lipoic acid inhibits human T-cell migration: implications for multiple sclerosis. J. Neurosci. Res. (2004) 78(3):362–370.
  • YADAV V, MARRACCI G, LOVERA J et al: Lipoic acid in multiple sclerosis: a pilot study. Mult. Scler. (2005) 11(2):159–165.
  • GATELY MK, RENZETTI LM, MAGRAM J et al: The interleukin-12/ interleukin-12-receptor system: role in normal and pathologic immune responses. Ann. Rev. Immunol (1998) 16:495–521.
  • FERRANTE P, FUSI ML, SARESELLA M et al.: Cytokine production and surface marker expression in acute and stable multiple sclerosis: altered IL-12 production and augmented signaling lymphocytic activation molecule (SLAM)-expressing lymphocytes in acute multiple sclerosis. Immunol (1998) 160(3):1514–1521.
  • BROK HP, VAN MEURS M, BLEZER E et al: Prevention of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in common marmosets using an anti-IL-12p40 monoclonal antibody. J. Immunol (2002) 169(11):6554–6563.
  • BAGGIOLINI M: Chemokines and leukocyte traffic. Nature (1998) 392(6676):565–568.
  • COLUMBA-CABESAS S, SERAFINI B, AMBROSINI E et al: Induction of macrophage-derived chemokine/CCL22 expression in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and cultured microglia: implications for diseaseregulation. NeuroimmunoL (2002) 130(1-2):10–21.
  • SORENSEN TL, TREBST C, KIVISAKK P et al: Multiple sclerosis: a study of CXCL10 and CXCR3 localization in in the inflamed central nervous system. J. Neuroimmunol. (2002) 127(1-2):59–68.
  • PITT D, WERNER P, RAINE CS: Glutamate excitotoxicity in a model of multiple sclerosis. Nat. Med. (2000) 6(1):67–70.
  • SMITH T, GROOM k ZHU B, TURSKI L: Autoimmune encephalomyelitis ameliorated by AMPA antagonists. Nat. Med. (2000) 6(1):62–66.
  • DEBOBO MW, LE GUERN J, CANTON T, DOBLE A, PRADIER L: Inhibition by riluzole of electrophysiological responses mediated by rat kainate and NMDA receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Eur. j Pharmacol (1993) 235(2-3):283–289.
  • GILGUN-SHERKI Y, PANET H, MELAMED E, OFFEN D: Riluzole suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: implications for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Brain Res. (2003) 989(2):196–204.
  • KALKERS NF, BARKHOF F, BERGERS E, VAN SSHIJNDEL R, POLMAN CH: The effect of the neuroprotective agent riluzole on MRI parameters in primary progressive multiple sclerosis: a pilot study. Mult. Scler. (2002) 8(0:532–533.
  • WALLSTROM E, DIENER P, LJUNGDAHL A. KHADEMI M, NILSSON CG, OLSSON T: Memantine abrogates neurological deficits, but not CNS inflammation, in Lewis rat experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. NeuroL Sci. (1996) 137(2):89–96.
  • ABRAHAM G, SOLYOM S, CSUZDI E et al: New non competitive AMPA antagonists. Bioorg. Med. Chem. (2000) 8(8):2127–2143.
  • ARIAS RL, TASSE JR, BO MR: Neuroprotective interaction effects of NMDA and AMPA receptor antagonists in an in vitro model of cerebral ischemia. Brain Res. (1999) 816(2):299–308.
  • STRAHLENDORF JC, BRANDON T, MILES R, STRAHLENDORF HK: AMPA receptor-mediated alterations of intracellular calcium homeostasis in rat cerebellar Purkinje cells in vitro: correlates to dark cell degeneration. Neurochem. Res. (1998) 23(11):1355–1362.
  • NISIM AA, HERNANDEZ CM, COHEN RW: The neuroprotective effects of non-NMDA antagonists in the cerebellum of the spastic Han Wistar mutant. Dev. Neurosci. (1999) 21(1):76–86.
  • SMITH T, GROOM A, ZHU B, TURSKI L: Autoimmune encephalomyelitis ameliorated by AMPA antagonists. Nat. Med. (2000) 6(1):62–66.
  • STYS PK, WAXMAN SG, RANSOM BR: Ionic mechanisms of anoxic injury in mammalian CNS white matter: role of Na* channels and Na(*)-Ca2* exchanger. Neurosci. (1992) 12(2):430–439.
  • CRANER MJ, NEWCOMBE J, BLACK JA, HARTLE C, CUZNER ML, WAXMAN SG: Molecular changes in neurons in multiple sclerosis: altered axonal expression of Nav1.2 and Nav1.6 sodium channels and Na*/Ca2* exchanger. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2004) 101(21):8168–8173.
  • CRANER MJ, HAINS BC, LO AC, BLACK JA, WAXMAN SG: Co-localization of sodium channel Nav1.6 and the sodium-calcium exchanger at sites of axonal injury in the spinal cord in EAE. Brain (2004) 127(Pt 2):294–303.
  • BECHTOLD DA, KAPOOR R, SMITH KJ: Axonal protection using flecainide in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Ann. Neurol (2004) 55(5):607–616.
  • CRANER MJ, DAMARJIAN TG, LIU S et al.: Sodium channels contribute to microglia/macrophage activation and function in EAE and MS. Glia (2005) 49(2):220–229.
  • LO AC, SAAB CY, BLACK JA, WAXMAN SG: Phenytoin protects spinal cord axons and preserves axonal conduction and neurological function in a model of neuroinflammation in vivo. J. Neurophysiol (2003) 90(5):3566–3571.
  • FOX P, BAIN PG, GLICKMAN S, CARROLL C, ZAJICEK J: The effect of cannabis on tremor in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurology (2004) 62(7):1105–1109.
  • ZAJICEK J, FOX P, SANDERS H et al.; UK MS RESEARCH GROUP: Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet (2003) 362(9395):1517–1526.
  • VANEY C, HEINZEL-GUTENBRUNNER M, JOBIN P et al: Efficacy, safety and tolerability of an orally administered cannabis extract in the treatment of spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Mult. Scler. (2004) 10(4):417–424.
  • PRYCE G, AHMED Z, HANKEY DJ et al: Cannabinoids inhibit neurodegeneration in models of multiple sclerosis. Brain (2003) 126(Pt 10):2191–2202.
  • JELKMANN W, METZEN E: Erythropoietin in the control of red cell production. Ann. Anat. (1996) 178(5):391–403.
  • CERAMI A, BRINES M, GHEZZI P, CERAMI C, ITRI LM: Neuroprotective properties of epoetin-a. Nephrol Dial. Transplant. (2002) 17\(Suppl. 1):8–12.
  • MARTI HH: Erythropoietin and the hypoxic brain. J. Exp. Biol. (2004) 207(Pt 18):3233–3242.
  • AGNELLO D, BIGINI P, VILLA P et al.: Erythropoietin exerts an anti-inflammatory effect on the CNS in a model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Brain Res. (2002) 952(1):128–134.
  • ZHANG J, LI Y, CUI Y et al.: Erythropoietin treatment improves neurological functional recovery in EAE mice. Brain Res. (2005) 1034(1-2):34–39.
  • MCTIGUE DM, HORNER PJ, STOKES BT, GAGE FH: Neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor induce oligodendrocyte proliferation and myelination of regenerating axons in the contused adult rat spinal cord. J. Neurosci. (1998) 18(14):5354–5365.
  • DIEM R, SATTLER MB, MERKLER D et al.: Combined therapy with methylprednisolone and erythropoietin in a model of multiple sclerosis. Brain (2005) 128(Pt 2):375–385.
  • LI W, MAEDAY, YUAN RR, ELKABES S, COOKS, DOWLING P: Beneficial effect of erythropoietin on experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Ann. Neurol (2004) 56(0:767–777.
  • EHRENREICH H, AUST C, KRAMPE H et al.: Erythropoietin: novel approaches to neuroprotection in human brain disease. Metab. Brain Dis. (2004) 19:(3-4):195–206.
  • WOLSWIJK G, MUNRO PM, RIDDLE PN, NOBLE M: Origin, growth factor responses, and ultrastructural characteristics of an adult-specific glial progenitor cell. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. (1991) 633:502–504.
  • BOZZALI M, WRABETZ L: Axonal signals and oligodendrocyte differentiation. Neurochem. Res. (2004) 29(5):979–988.
  • WILSON HC, ONISCHKE C, RAINE CS: Human oligodendrocyte precursor cells in vitro: phenotypic analysis and differential response to growth factors. Glia (2003) 44(2):153–165.
  • LINKER RA, MAURER M, GAUPP S et al.: CNTF is a major protective factor in demyelinating CNS disease: a neurotrophic cytokine as modulator in neuroinflammation. Nat. Med. (2002) 8(6):620–624.
  • LIU X, YAO DL, WEBSTER H: Insulin-like growth factor I treatment reduces clinical deficits and lesion severity in acute demyelinating experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Mult. Scler. (1995) 1(1):2–9.
  • LI M, SENDTNER M, SMITH A: Essential function of LIF receptor in motor neurons. Nature (1995) 378(6558):724–727.
  • BUTZKEUVEN H, ZHANG JG, SOILU-HANNIEN M et al.: LIF receptor signaling limits immune-mediated demyelination by enhancing oligodendrocyte survival. Nat. Med. (2002) 8(6):613–619.
  • FRANKLIN RJ, HINKS GL, WOODRUFF RH, O'LEARY MT: What roles do growth factors play in CNS remyelination? Prog-. Brain Res. (2001) 132:185–193.
  • BLAKEMORE WF, GILSON JM, CRANG AJ: Transplanted glial cells migrate over a greater distance and remyelinate demyelinated lesions more rapidly than endogenous remyelinating cells. J. Neurosci. Res. (2000) 61(3):288–294.
  • WINDREM MS, NUNES MC, RASHBAUM WK et al.: Fetal and adult human oligodendrocyte progenitor cell isolates myelinate the congenitally dysmyelinated brain. Nat. Med. (2004) 10(1):93–97.
  • BACHELIN C, LACHEPELLE F, GIRARD C et al.: Efficient myelin repair in the macaque spinal cord by autologous grafts of Schwann cells. Brain (2005) 128(Pt 3):540–549.
  • BRUSTLE O, JONES KN, LEARISH RD et al.: Embryonic stem cell-derived glial precursors: a source of myelinating transplants. Science (1999) 285(5428):754–756.
  • LIU S, QU Y, STEWART TJ et al: Embryonic stem cells differentiate into oligodendrocytes and myelinate in culture and after spinal cord transplantation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA (2000) 97(11):6126–6131.
  • GLASER T, PEREZ-BOUZA A, KLEIN K, BRUSTLE 0: Generation of purified oligodendrocyte progenitors from embryonic stem cells. FASEB J. (2005) 19(1):112–114.
  • WHETTEN-GOLDSTEIN K, SLOAN FA, GOLDSTEIN LB, KULAS ED: A comprehensive assessment of the cost of multiple sclerosis in the United States. Mult. Scler. (1998) 5:419–425.
  • PROSSER LA, KUNTZ KM, BAR-OR A, WEINSTEIN MC: Cost-effectiveness of interferon-Bla, interferon-Bib, and glatiramer acetate in newly diagnosed non-primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Value Health (2004) 5:554–568.
  • GOLD MR, SIEGEL JE, RUSSEL LB, WEINSTEIN M: Cost-effectiveness in health and medicine. Oxford University Press, New York, USA (1990.

Websites

  • http://www.aventis.com
  • http://www.nationalmssociety.org
  • http://www.nice.org.uk/pdfl Multiple°/020Sclerosi0/020Final°/020Guidan ce.pdf Technology Appraisal No. 32. — guidance on the use of beta interferon and glatiramer acetate for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.