77
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Emerging drugs for the treatment of sepsis

, , , &
Pages 7-22 | Published online: 27 Feb 2006

Bibliography

  • BONE RC, BALK RA, CERRA FB et al.: Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Chest (1992) 101(6):1644-1655.
  • LEVY MM, FINK MP, MARSHALL JC et al.: 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 31(4):1250-1256.
  • ANGUS DC, LINDE-ZWIRBLE WT, LIDICKER J, CLERMONT G, CARCILLO J, PINSKY MR: Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit. Care Med. (2001) 29(7):1303-1310.
  • MARTIN GS, MANNINO DM, EATON S, MOSS M: The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N. Engl. J. Med. (2003) 348(16):1546-1554.
  • ALBERTI C, BRUN-BUISSON C, BURCHARDI H et al.: Epidemiology of sepsis and infection in ICU patients from an international multicentre cohort study. Intensive Care Med. (2002) 28(2):108-121.
  • JANEWAY CA JR, MEDZHITOV R: Innate immune recognition. Ann. Rev. Immunol. (2002) 20:197-216.
  • GORDON S: Pattern recognition receptors: doubling up for the innate immune response. Cell (2002) 111(7):927-930.
  • CALANDRA T: Pathogenesis of septic shock: implications for prevention and treatment. J. Chemother. (2001) 1(1):173-180.
  • TAKEUCHI O, HOSHINO K, KAWAI T et al.: Differential roles of TLR2 and TLR4 in recognition of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial cell wall components. Immunity (1999) 11(4):443-451.
  • BOUCHON A, DIETRICH J, COLONNA M: Cutting edge: inflammatory responses can be triggered by TREM-1, a novel receptor expressed on neutrophils and monocytes. J. Immunol. (2000) 164(10):4991-4995.
  • INOHARA N, OGURA Y, CHEN FF, MUTO A, NUNEZ G: Human Nod1 confers responsiveness to bacterial lipopolysaccharides. J. Biol. Chem. (2001) 276(4):2551-2554.
  • INOHARA N, OGURA Y, NUNEZ G: Nods: a family of cytosolic proteins that regulate the host response to pathogens. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. (2002) 5(1):76-80.
  • VAN LEEUWEN HJ, VAN DER BRUGGEN T, VAN ASBECK BS, BOEREBOOM FT: Effect of corticosteroids on nuclear factor-κB activation and hemodynamics in late septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (2001) 29(5):1074-1077.
  • SUZUKI K, GABAZZA EC, HAYASHI T, KAMADA H, ADACHI Y, TAGUCHI O: Protective role of activated protein C in lung and airway remodeling. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 32(5 Suppl.):S262-S265.
  • STAELS B, KOENIG W, HABIB A et al.: Activation of human aortic smooth-muscle cells is inhibited by PPARα, but not by PPARγ activators. Nature (1998) 393(6687):790-793.
  • IKEJIMA T, DINARELLO CA, GILL DM, WOLFF SM: Induction of human interleukin-1 by a product of Staphylococcus aureus associated with toxic shock syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. (1984) 73(5):1312-1320.
  • DINARELLO CA: Interleukin-1 and the pathogenesis of the acute-phase response. N. Engl. J. Med. (1984) 311(22):1413-1418.
  • BEUTLER B, MILSARK IW, CERAMI AC: Passive immunization against cachectin/tumor necrosis factor protects mice from lethal effect of endotoxin. Science (1985) 229(4716):869-871.
  • BRANDTZAEG P, OSNES L, OVSTEBO R, JOO GB, WESTVIK AB, KIERULF P: Net inflammatory capacity of human septic shock plasma evaluated by a monocyte-based target cell assay: identification of interleukin-10 as a major functional deactivator of human monocytes. J. Exp. Med. (1996) 184(1):51-60.
  • GRANOWITZ EV, CLARK BD, MANCILLA J, DINARELLO CA: Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist competitively inhibits the binding of interleukin-1 to the type II interleukin-1 receptor. J. Biol. Chem. (1991) 266(22):14147-14150.
  • VAN ZEE KJ, KOHNO T, FISCHER E, ROCK CS, MOLDAWER LL, LOWRY SF: Tumor necrosis factor soluble receptors circulate during experimental and clinical inflammation and can protect against excessive tumor necrosis factor-α in vitro and in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1992) 89(11):4845-4849.
  • CHRISTOU NV, MCLEAN AP, MEAKINS JL: Host defense in blunt trauma: interrelationships of kinetics of anergy and depressed neutrophil function, nutritional status, and sepsis. J. Trauma (1980) 20(10):833-841.
  • CHRISTOU NV, MEAKINS JL: Neutrophil function in anergic surgical patients: neutrophil adherence and chemotaxis. Ann. Surg. (1979) 190(5):557-564.
  • SOLBERG CO, HELLUM KB: Neutrophil granulocyte function in bacterial infections. Lancet (1972) 2(7780):727-730.
  • DOCKE WD, RANDOW F, SYRBE U et al.: Monocyte deactivation in septic patients: restoration by IFN-γ treatment. Nat. Med. (1997) 3(6):678-681.
  • FUMEAUX T, PUGIN J: Role of interleukin-10 in the intracellular sequestration of human leukocyte antigen-DR in monocytes during septic shock. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 166(11):1475-1482.
  • WILLIAMS MA, WITHINGTON S, NEWLAND AC, KELSEY SM: Monocyte anergy in septic shock is associated with a predilection to apoptosis and is reversed by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor ex vivo. J. Infect. Dis. (1998) 178(5):1421-1433.
  • WOLK K, DOCKE WD, VON BAEHR V, VOLK HD, SABAT R: Impaired antigen presentation by human monocytes during endotoxin tolerance. Blood (2000) 96(1):218-223.
  • SCHROEDER S, LINDEMANN C, HOEFT A et al.: Impaired inducibility of heat shock protein 70 in peripheral blood lymphocytes of patients with severe sepsis. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 27(6):1080-1084.
  • HOTCHKISS RS, SWANSON PE, FREEMAN BD et al.: Apoptotic cell death in patients with sepsis, shock and multiple organ dysfunction. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 27(7):1230-1251.
  • LE TULZO Y, PANGAULT C, GACOUIN A et al.: Early circulating lymphocyte apoptosis in human septic shock is associated with poor outcome. Shock (2002) 18(6):487-494.
  • ANNANE D, BELLISSANT E, CAVAILLON JM: Septic shock. Lancet (2005) 365(9453):63-78.
  • ADIB-CONQUY M, MOINE P, ASEHNOUNE K et al.: Toll-like receptor-mediated tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-10 production differ during systemic inflammation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 168(2):158-164.
  • STEPHAN F, YANG K, TANKOVIC J et al.: Impairment of polymorphonuclear neutrophil functions precedes nosocomial infections in critically ill patients. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 30(2):315-322.
  • LEFERING R, NEUGEBAUER EA: Steroid controversy in sepsis and septic shock: a meta-analysis. Crit. Care Med. (1995) 23(7):1294-1303.
  • KEH D, BOEHNKE T, WEBER-CARTENS S et al.: Immunologic and hemodynamic effects of ‘low-dose’ hydrocortisone in septic shock: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 167(4):512-520.
  • ANNANE D, SEBILLE V, CHARPENTIER C et al.: Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA (2002) 288(7):862-871.
  • THOMAS L: Germs. N. Engl. J. Med. (1972) 287(11):553-555.
  • MUNFORD RS, PUGIN J: Normal responses to injury prevent systemic inflammation and can be immunosuppressive. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2001) 163(2):316-321.
  • COHEN J: The immunopathogenesis of sepsis. Nature (2002) 420(6917):885-891.
  • VAN DER POLL T, VAN DEVENTER SJ: Cytokines and anticytokines in the pathogenesis of sepsis. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. (1999) 13(2):413-426.
  • PATHAN N, HEMINGWAY CA, ALIZADEH AA et al.: Role of interleukin 6 in myocardial dysfunction of meningococcal septic shock. Lancet (2004) 363(9404):203-209.
  • SCHRIER RW, WANG W: Acute renal failure and sepsis. N. Engl. J. Med. (2004) 351(2):159-169.
  • SINGER M, DE SANTIS V, VITALE D, JEFFCOATE W: Multiorgan failure is an adaptive, endocrine-mediated, metabolic response to overwhelming systemic inflammation. Lancet (2004) 364(9433):545-548.
  • ECHTENACHER B, WEIGL K, LEHN N, MANNEL DN: Tumor necrosis factor-dependent adhesions as a major protective mechanism early in septic peritonitis in mice. Infect. Immun. (2001) 69(6):3550-3555.
  • LEVI M, DORFFLER-MELLY J, REITSMA P, BULLER H, FLORQUIN S, VAN DER POLL T et al.: Aggravation of endotoxin-induced disseminated intravascular coagulation and cytokine activation in heterozygous protein-C-deficient mice. Blood (2003) 101(12):4823-4827.
  • YAN SB, HELTERBRAND JD, HARTMAN DL, WRIGHT TJ, BERNARD GR: Low levels of protein C are associated with poor outcome in severe sepsis. Chest (2001) 120(3):915-922.
  • DELLINGER RP, CARLET JM, GERLACH H, RAMSEY G, LEVY M: The surviving sepsis guidelines: not another ‘groundhog day’. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 32(7):1601-1602.
  • VAN DEN BERGHE G, WOUTERS P, WEEKERS F et al.: Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N. Engl. J. Med. (2001) 345(19):1359-1367.
  • OPAL SM, YU RL Jr: Antiendotoxin strategies for the prevention and treatment of septic shock. New approaches and future directions. Drugs (1998) 55(4):497-508.
  • LIEBERMAN JM, CHIU SS, WONG VK et al.: Safety and immunogenicity of a serogroups A/C Neisseria meningitidis oligosaccharide-protein conjugate vaccine in young children. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA (1996) 275(19):1499-1503.
  • SHINEFIELD H, BLACK S, FATTOM A et al.: Use of a Staphylococcus aureus conjugate vaccine in patients receiving hemodialysis. N. Engl. J. Med. (2002) 346(7):491-496.
  • FOXWELL AR, CRIPPS AW, DEAR KB: Haemophilus influenzae oral whole cell vaccination for preventing acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2003) 3:CD001958.
  • D’AMICO R, PIFFERI S, LEONETTI C, TORRI V, TINAZZI A, LIBERATI A: Effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis in critically ill adult patients: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Br. Med. J. (1998) 316(7140):1275-1285.
  • NATHENS AB, MARSHALL JC: Selective decontamination of the digestive tract in surgical patients: a systematic review of the evidence. Arch. Surg. (1999) 134(2):170-176.
  • DE JONGE E, SCHULTZ MJ, SPANJAARD L et al.: Effects of selective decontamination of digestive tract on mortality and acquisition of resistant bacteria in intensive care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet (2003) 362(9389):1011-1016.
  • DE LA CAL MA, CERDA E, GARCIA-HIERRO P et al.: Survival benefit in critically ill burned patients receiving selective decontamination of the digestive tract: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Ann. Surg. (2005) 241(3):424-430.
  • CISNEROS JM, REYES MJ, PACHON J et al.: Bacteremia due to Acinetobacter baumannii: epidemiology, clinical findings and prognostic features. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1996) 22(6):1026-1032.
  • PEDERSEN G, SCHONHEYDER HC, SORENSEN HT: Antibiotic therapy and outcome of monomicrobial Gram-negative bacteraemia: a 3-year population-based study. Scand J. Infect. Dis. (1997) 29(6):601-606.
  • RELLO J, RICART M, MIRELIS B et al.: Nosocomial bacteremia in a medical-surgical intensive care unit: epidemiologic characteristics and factors influencing mortality in 111 episodes. Intensive Care Med. (1994) 20(2):94-98.
  • GARNACHO-MONTERO J, GARCIA-GARMENDIA JL, BARRERO-ALMODOVAR A, JIMENEZ-JIMENEZ FJ, PEREZ-PAREDES C, ORTIZ-LEYBA C: Impact of adequate empirical antibiotic therapy on the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with sepsis. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 31(12):2742-2751.
  • MACARTHUR RD, MILLER M, ALBERTSON T et al.: Adequacy of early empiric antibiotic treatment and survival in severe sepsis: experience from the MONARCS trial. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2004) 38(2):284-288.
  • RIVERS E, NGUYEN B, HAVSTAD S et al.: Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N. Engl. J. Med. (2001) 345(19):1368-1377.
  • NO AUTHORS LISTED: Human albumin administration in critically ill patients: systematic review of randomised controlled trials: Cochrane Injuries Group Albumin Reviewers. Br. Med. J. (1998) 317(7153):235-240.
  • SCHIERHOUT G, ROBERTS I: Fluid resuscitation with colloid or crystalloid solutions in critically ill patients: a systematic review of randomised trials. Br. Med. J. (1998) 316(7136):961-964.
  • FINFER S, BELLOMO R, BOYCE N, FRENCH J, MYBURGH J, NORTON R: A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N. Engl. J. Med. (2004) 350(22):2247-2256.
  • COOK D: Is albumin safe? N. Engl. J. Med. (2004) 350(22):2294-2296.
  • HOLLENBERG SM, AHRENS TS, ANNANE D et al.: Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients: 2004 update. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 32(9):1928-1948.
  • HEBERT PC, WELLS G, BLAJCHMAN MA et al.: A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care Investigators, Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. N. Engl. J. Med. (1999) 340(6):409-417.
  • MULLNER M, URBANEK B, HAVEL C, LOSERT H, WAECHTER F, GAMPER G: Vasopressors for shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2004) 3:CD003709.
  • MARTIN C, VIVIAND X, LEONE M, THIRION X: Effect of norepinephrine on the outcome of septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (2000) 28(8):2758-2765.
  • BELLOMO R, CHAPMAN M, FINFER S, HICKLING K, MYBURGH J: Low-dose dopamine in patients with early renal dysfunction: a placebo-controlled randomised trial. Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society (ANZICS) Clinical Trials Group. Lancet (2000) 356(9248):2139-2143.
  • DUNSER MW, MAYR AJ, ULMER H et al.: Arginine vasopressin in advanced vasodilatory shock: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Circulation (2003) 107(18):2313-2319.
  • PATEL BM, CHITTOCK DR, RUSSELL JA, WALLEY KR: Beneficial effects of short-term vasopressin infusion during severe septic shock. Anesthesiology (2002) 96(3):576-582.
  • TSUNEYOSHI I, YAMADA H, KAKIHANA Y et al.: Hemodynamic and metabolic effects of low-dose vasopressin infusions in vasodilatory septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (2001) 29(3):487-493.
  • ANNANE D, BELLISSANT E, BOLLAERT PE, BRIEGEL J, KEH D, KUPFER Y: Corticosteroids for severe sepsis and septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. Med. J. (2004) 329(7464):480.
  • ANNANE D, BRIEGEL J, SPRUNG CL: Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients. N. Engl. J. Med. (2003) 348(21):2157-2159.
  • COOPER MS, STEWART PM: Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients. N. Engl. J. Med. (2003) 348(8):727-734.
  • ABRAHAM E, REINHART K, OPAL S et al.: Efficacy and safety of tifacogin (recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor) in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA (2003) 290(2):238-247.
  • WARREN BL, EID A, SINGER P et al.: Caring for the critically ill patient. High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA (2001) 286(15):1869-1878.
  • BERNARD GR, VINCENT JL, LATERRE PF et al.: Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N. Engl. J. Med. (2001) 344(10):699-709.
  • BERNARD GR, MARGOLIS BD, SHANIES HM et al.: Extended evaluation of recombinant human activated protein C United States Trial (ENHANCE US): a single-arm, Phase IIIB, multicenter study of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in severe sepsis. Chest (2004) 125(6):2206-2216.
  • SUTHERLAND AM, WALLEY KR, RUSSELL JA: Polymorphisms in CD14, mannose-binding lectin, and Toll-like receptor-2 are associated with increased prevalence of infection in critically ill adults. Crit. Care Med. (2005) 33(3):638-644.
  • SUTHERLAND AM, WALLEY KR, MANOCHA S, RUSSELL JA: The association of interleukin 6 haplotype clades with mortality in critically ill adults. Arch. Intern. Med. (2005) 165(1):75-82.
  • BARBER RC, ARAGAKI CC, RIVERA-CHAVEZ FA, PURDUE GF, HUNT JL, HORTON JW: TLR4 and TNF-α polymorphisms are associated with an increased risk for severe sepsis following burn injury. J. Med. Genet. (2004) 41(11):808-813.
  • GARRED P, J JS, QUIST L, TAANING E, MADSEN HO: Association of mannose-binding lectin polymorphisms with sepsis and fatal outcome, in patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome. J. Infect. Dis. (2003) 188(9):1394-1403.
  • TEMPLE SE, CHEONG KY, ARDLIE KG, SAYER D, WATERER GW: The septic shock associated HSPA1B1267 polymorphism influences production of HSPA1A and HSPA1B. Intensive Care Med. (2004) 30(9):1761-1767.
  • HARDING D, BAINES PB, BRULL D et al.: Severity of meningococcal disease in children and the angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 165(8):1103-1106.
  • LIN MT, ALBERTSON TE: Genomic polymorphisms in sepsis. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 32(2):569-579.
  • JABER BL, LIANGOS O, PEREIRA BJ, BALAKRISHNAN VS: Polymorphism of immunomodulatory cytokine genes: implications in acute renal failure. Blood Purif. (2004) 22(1):101-111.
  • GLINZ W, GROB PJ, NYDEGGER UE et al.: Polyvalent immunoglobulins for prophylaxis of bacterial infections in patients following multiple trauma. A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Intensive Care Med. (1985) 11(6):288-294.
  • NO AUTHORS LISTED: Prophylactic intravenous administration of standard immune globulin as compared with core-lipopolysaccharide immune globulin in patients at high risk of postsurgical infection: the Intravenous Immunoglobulin Collaborative Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. (1992) 327(4):234-240.
  • DOUZINAS EE, PITARIDIS MT, LOURIS G et al.: Prevention of infection in multiple trauma patients by high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins. Crit. Care Med. (2000) 28(1):8-15.
  • HEYLAND DK, NOVAK F, DROVER JW, JAIN M, SU X, SUCHNER U: Should immunonutrition become routine in critically ill patients? A systematic review of the evidence. JAMA (2001) 286(8):944-953.
  • BRUINS MJ, SOETERS PB, LAMERS WH, MEIJER AJ, DEUTZ NE: l-arginine supplementation in hyperdynamic endotoxemic pigs: effect on nitric oxide synthesis by the different organs. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 30(3):508-517.
  • CALKINS CM, BENSARD DD, HEIMBACH JK et al.: l-arginine attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced lung chemokine production. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. (2001) 280(3):L400-L408.
  • GRASEMANN H, GRASEMANN C, KURTZ F, TIETZE-SCHILLINGS G, VESTER U, RATJEN F: Oral l-arginine supplementation in cystic fibrosis patients: a placebo-controlled study. Eur. Respir. J. (2005) 25(1):62-68.
  • KELLEY TJ, DRUMM ML: Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression is reduced in cystic fibrosis murine and human airway epithelial cells. J. Clin. Invest. (1998) 102(6):1200-1207.
  • KAZATCHKINE MD, KAVERI SV: Immunomodulation of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases with intravenous immune globulin. N. Engl. J. Med. (2001) 345(10):747-755.
  • ALEJANDRIA MM, LANSANG MA, DANS LF, MANTARING JB: Intravenous immunoglobulin for treating sepsis and septic shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2002) 1:CD001090.
  • KAUL R, MCGEER A, NORRBY-TEGLUND A et al.: Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome – a comparative observational study. The Canadian Streptococcal Study Group. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1999) 28(4):800-807.
  • DARENBERG J, IHENDYANE N, SJOLIN J et al.: Intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: a European randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2003) 37(3):333-340.
  • GREENMAN RL, SCHEIN RM, MARTIN MA et al.: A controlled clinical trial of E5 murine monoclonal IgM antibody to endotoxin in the treatment of Gram-negative sepsis. The XOMA Sepsis Study Group. JAMA (1991) 266(8):1097-1102.
  • ZIEGLER EJ, FISHER CJ Jr, SPRUNG CL et al. Treatment of Gram-negative bacteremia and septic shock with HA-1A human monoclonal antibody against endotoxin. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The HA-1A Sepsis Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. (1991) 324(7):429-436.
  • ALBERTSON TE, PANACEK EA, MACARTHUR RD et al.: Multicenter evaluation of a human monoclonal antibody to Enterobacteriaceae common antigen in patients with Gram-negative sepsis. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 31(2):419-427.
  • LEVIN M, QUINT PA, GOLDSTEIN B et al.: Recombinant bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (rBPI21) as adjunctive treatment for children with severe meningococcal sepsis: a randomised trial. rBPI21 Meningococcal Sepsis Study Group. Lancet (2000) 356(9234):961-967.
  • LYNN M, ROSSIGNOL DP, WHEELER JL et al.: Blocking of responses to endotoxin by E5564 in healthy volunteers with experimental endotoxemia. J. Infect. Dis. (2003) 187(4):631-639.
  • RAUCHHAUS M, COATS AJ, ANKER SD: The endotoxin-lipoprotein hypothesis. Lancet (2000) 356(9233):930-933.
  • HUDGINS LC, PARKER TS, LEVINE DM et al.: A single intravenous dose of endotoxin rapidly alters serum lipoproteins and lipid transfer proteins in normal volunteers. J. Lipid Res. (2003) 44(8):1489-1498.
  • GORDON BR, PARKER TS, LEVINE DM, FEUERBACH F, SAAL SD, SLOAN BJ et al.: Neutralization of endotoxin by a phospholipid emulsion in healthy volunteers. J. Infect. Dis. (2005) 191(9):1515-1522.
  • LARRICK JW, HIRATA M, SHIMOMOURA Y et al.: Rabbit CAP18 derived peptides inhibit Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. (1994) 388:125-135.
  • WARREN HS, MATYAL R, ALLAIRE JE et al.: Protective efficacy of CAP18106-138-immunoglobulin G in sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. (2003) 188(9):1382-1393.
  • AXTELLE T, PRIBBLE J: IC14, a CD14 specific monoclonal antibody, is a potential treatment for patients with severe sepsis. J. Endotoxin Res. (2001) 7(4):310-314.
  • VERBON A, DEKKERS PE, TEN HOVE T et al.: IC14, an anti-CD14 antibody, inhibits endotoxin-mediated symptoms and inflammatory responses in humans. J. Immunol. (2001) 166(5):3599-3605.
  • REINHART K, GLUCK T, LIGTENBERG J et al.: CD14 receptor occupancy in severe sepsis: results of a Phase I clinical trial with a recombinant chimeric CD14 monoclonal antibody (IC14). Crit. Care Med. (2004) 32(5):1100-1108.
  • GIBOT S, KOLOPP-SARDA MN, BENE MC et al.: A soluble form of the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 modulates the inflammatory response in murine sepsis. J. Exp. Med. (2004) 200(11):1419-1426.
  • LEITINGER N, TYNER TR, OSLUND L et al.: Structurally similar oxidized phospholipids differentially regulate endothelial binding of monocytes and neutrophils. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96(21):12010-12015.
  • BOCHKOV VN, KADL A, HUBER J, GRUBER F, BINDER BR, LEITINGER N: Protective role of phospholipid oxidation products in endotoxin-induced tissue damage. Nature (2002) 419(6902):77-81.
  • MATSUDA N, HATTORI Y, TAKAHASHI Y et al.: Therapeutic effect of in vivo transfection of transcription factor decoy to NF-κB on septic lung in mice. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. (2004) 287(6):L1248-L1255.
  • OLIVER FJ, MENISSIER-DE MURCIA J, NACCI C et al.: Resistance to endotoxic shock as a consequence of defective NF-κB activation in poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 deficient mice. EMBO J. (1999) 18(16):4446-4454.
  • GOLDFARB RD, MARTON A, SZABO E et al.: Protective effect of a novel, potent inhibitor of poly(adenosine 5′-diphosphate-ribose) synthetase in a porcine model of severe bacterial sepsis. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 30(5):974-980.
  • SORIANO FG, LIAUDET L, SZABO E et al.: Resistance to acute septic peritonitis in poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1-deficient mice. Shock (2002) 17(4):286-292.
  • XIA YF, YE BQ, LI YD et al.: Andrographolide attenuates inflammation by inhibition of NF-κB activation through covalent modification of reduced cysteine 62 of p50. J. Immunol. (2004) 173(6):4207-4217.
  • MARSHALL JC: Such stuff as dreams are made on: mediator-directed therapy in sepsis. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. (2003) 2(5):391-405.
  • CALANDRA T, BUCALA R: Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF): a glucocorticoid counter-regulator within the immune system. Crit. Rev. Immunol. (1997) 17(1):77-88.
  • CALANDRA T, ECHTENACHER B, ROY DL et al.: Protection from septic shock by neutralization of macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Nat. Med. (2000) 6(2):164-170.
  • LEHMANN LE, NOVENDER U, SCHROEDER S et al.: Plasma levels of macrophage migration inhibitory factor are elevated in patients with severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med. (2001) 27(8):1412-1415.
  • GANDO S, NISHIHIRA J, KOBAYASHI S, MORIMOTO Y, NANZAKI S, KEMMOTSU O: Macrophage migration inhibitory factor is a critical mediator of systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Intensive Care Med. (2001) 27(7):1187-1193.
  • BERNHAGEN J, CALANDRA T, MITCHELL RA et al.: MIF is a pituitary-derived cytokine that potentiates lethal endotoxaemia. Nature (1993) 365(6448):756-759.
  • BOZZA M, SATOSKAR AR, LIN G et al.: Targeted disruption of migration inhibitory factor gene reveals its critical role in sepsis. J. Exp. Med. (1999) 189(2):341-346.
  • ROGER T, DAVID J, GLAUSER MP, CALANDRA T: MIF regulates innate immune responses through modulation of Toll-like receptor 4. Nature (2001) 414(6866):920-924.
  • BUSTIN M: Regulation of DNA-dependent activities by the functional motifs of the high-mobility-group chromosomal proteins. Mol. Cell. Biol. (1999) 19(8):5237-5246.
  • WANG H, BLOOM O, ZHANG M et al.: HMG-1 as a late mediator of endotoxin lethality in mice. Science (1999) 285(5425):248-251.
  • ANDERSSON U, WANG H, PALMBLAD K et al.: High mobility group 1 protein (HMG-1) stimulates proinflammatory cytokine synthesis in human monocytes. J. Exp. Med. (2000) 192(4):565-570.
  • FIUZA C, BUSTIN M, TALWAR S et al.: Inflammation-promoting activity of HMGB1 on human microvascular endothelial cells. Blood (2003) 101(7):2652-2660.
  • SAPPINGTON PL, YANG R, YANG H, TRACEY KJ, DELUDE RL, FINK MP: HMGB1 B box increases the permeability of Caco-2 enterocytic monolayers and impairs intestinal barrier function in mice. Gastroenterology (2002) 123(3):790-802.
  • ULLOA L, OCHANI M, YANG H et al.: Ethyl pyruvate prevents lethality in mice with established lethal sepsis and systemic inflammation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2002) 99(19):12351-12356.
  • YANG H, OCHANI M, LI J et al.: Reversing established sepsis with antagonists of endogenous high-mobility group box 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2004) 101(1):296-301.
  • SHIEH P, ZHOU M, ORNAN DA, CHAUDRY IH, WANG P: Upregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and nitric oxide occurs later than the onset of the hyperdynamic response during sepsis. Shock (2000) 13(4):325-329.
  • WATSON D, GROVER R, ANZUETO A et al.: Cardiovascular effects of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-methyl-l-arginine hydrochloride (546C88) in patients with septic shock: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study (study no. 144-002). Crit. Care Med. (2004) 32(1):13-20.
  • ANNANE D, SANQUER S, SEBILLE V et al.: Compartmentalised inducible nitric-oxide synthase activity in septic shock. Lancet (2000) 355(9210):1143-1148.
  • LOPEZ A, LORENTE JA, STEINGRUB J et al.: Multiple-center, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor 546C88: effect on survival in patients with septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 32(1):21-30.
  • TAKALA J, RUOKONEN E, WEBSTER NR et al.: Increased mortality associated with growth hormone treatment in critically ill adults. N. Engl. J. Med. (1999) 341(11):785-792.
  • SUN Q, DIMOPOULOS G, NGUYEN DN et al.: Low-dose vasopressin in the treatment of septic shock in sheep. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 168(4):481-486.
  • SHARSHAR T, BLANCHARD A, PAILLARD M, RAPHAEL JC, GAJDOS P, ANNANE D: Circulating vasopressin levels in septic shock. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 31(6):1752-1758.
  • MALAY MB, ASHTON RC, JR:, LANDRY DW, TOWNSEND RN: Low-dose vasopressin in the treatment of vasodilatory septic shock. J. Trauma (1999) 47(4):699-703; discussion 703-735.
  • HOTCHKISS RS, SWANSON PE, KNUDSON CM et al.: Overexpression of Bcl-2 in transgenic mice decreases apoptosis and improves survival in sepsis. J. Immunol. (1999) 162(7):4148-4156.
  • OBERHOLZER C, OBERHOLZER A, CLARE-SALZLER M, MOLDAWER LL: Apoptosis in sepsis: a new target for therapeutic exploration. FASEB J (2001) 15(6):879-892.
  • HOTCHKISS RS, TINSLEY KW, SWANSON PE et al.: Prevention of lymphocyte cell death in sepsis improves survival in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96(25):14541-14546.
  • HOTCHKISS RS, CHANG KC, SWANSON PE et al.: Caspase inhibitors improve survival in sepsis: a critical role of the lymphocyte. Nat. Immunol. (2000) 1(6):496-501.
  • COOPERSMITH CM, STROMBERG PE, DUNNE WM et al.: Inhibition of intestinal epithelial apoptosis and survival in a murine model of pneumonia-induced sepsis. JAMA (2002) 287(13):1716-1721.
  • COOPERSMITH CM, CHANG KC, SWANSON PE et al.: Overexpression of Bcl-2 in the intestinal epithelium improves survival in septic mice. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 30(1):195-201.
  • CZERMAK BJ, SARMA V, PIERSON CL et al.: Protective effects of C5a blockade in sepsis. Nat. Med. (1999) 5(7):788-792.
  • RIEDEMANN NC, GUO RF, NEFF TA et al.: Increased C5a receptor expression in sepsis. J. Clin. Invest. (2002) 110(1):101-108.
  • HUBER-LANG MS, RIEDEMAN NC, SARMA JV et al.: Protection of innate immunity by C5aR antagonist in septic mice. FASEB J (2002) 16(12):1567-1574.
  • HANGEN DH, STEVENS JH, SATOH PS, HALL EW, O’HANLEY PT, RAFFIN TA: Complement levels in septic primates treated with anti-C5a antibodies. J. Surg. Res. (1989) 46(3):195-199.
  • STEVENS JH, O’HANLEY P, SHAPIRO JM et al.: Effects of anti-C5a antibodies on the adult respiratory distress syndrome in septic primates. J. Clin. Invest. (1986) 77(6)1812-1816.
  • NAKAE H, ENDO S, INADA K, TAKAKUWA T, KASAI T, YOSHIDA M: Serum complement levels and severity of sepsis. Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. (1994) 84(2):189-195.
  • NAKAE H, ENDO S, INADA K, YOSHIDA M: Chronological changes in the complement system in sepsis. Surg. Today (1996) 26(4):225-229.
  • BENGTSON A, HEIDEMAN M: Anaphylatoxin formation in sepsis. Arch. Surg. (1988) 123(5):645-649.
  • HUBER-LANG MS, YOUNKIN EM, SARMA JV et al.: Complement-induced impairment of innate immunity during sepsis. J. Immunol. (2002) 169(6):3223-3231.
  • GUO RF, RIEDEMANN NC, BERNACKI KD et al.: Neutrophil C5a receptor and the outcome in a rat model of sepsis. FASEB J (2003) 17(13):1889-1891.
  • RIEDEMANN NC, GUO RF, WARD PA: A key role of C5a/C5aR activation for the development of sepsis. J. Leukoc. Biol. (2003) 74(6):966-970.
  • LAUDES IJ, CHU JC, SIKRANTH S et al.: Anti-c5a ameliorates coagulation/fibrinolytic protein changes in a rat model of sepsis. Am. J. Pathol. (2002) 160(5):1867-1875.
  • GUO RF, WARD PA: Role of C5a in inflammatory responses. Ann. Rev. Immunol. (2005) 23:821-852.
  • BOROVIKOVA LV, IVANOVA S, ZHANG M et al.: Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature (2000) 405(6785):458-462.
  • VAN WESTERLOO DJ, GIEBELEN IA, FLORQUIN S et al.: The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway regulates the host response during septic peritonitis. J. Infect. Dis. (2005) 191(12):2138-2148.
  • VOLK HD, REINKE P, DOCKE WD: Immunological monitoring of the inflammatory process: which variables? When to assess? Eur. J. Surg. Suppl. (1999) 584:70-72.
  • PAYEN D, FAIVRE V, LUKASZEWICZ AC, LOSSER MR: Assessment of immunological status in the critically ill. Minerva Anestesiol. (2000) 66(10):757-763.
  • PETTILA V, HYNNINEN M, TAKKUNEN O, KUUSELA P, VALTONEN M: Predictive value of procalcitonin and interleukin 6 in critically ill patients with suspected sepsis. Intensive Care Med. (2002) 28(9):1220-1225.
  • VAN DISSEL JT, VAN LANGEVELDE P, WESTENDORP RG, KWAPPENBERG K, FROLICH M: Anti-inflammatory cytokine profile and mortality in febrile patients. Lancet (1998) 351(9107):950-953.
  • HYNNINEN M, PETTILA V, TAKKUNEN O et al.: Predictive value of monocyte histocompatibility leukocyte antigen-DR expression and plasma interleukin-4 and -10 levels in critically ill patients with sepsis. Shock (2003) 20(1):1-4.
  • PERRY SE, MOSTAFA SM, WENSTONE R, SHENKIN A, MCLAUGHLIN PJ: Is low monocyte HLA-DR expression helpful to predict outcome in severe sepsis? Intensive Care Med. (2003) 29(8):1245-1252.
  • TSCHAIKOWSKY K, HEDWIG-GEISSING M, SCHIELE A, BREMER F, SCHYWALSKY M, SCHUTTLER J: Coincidence of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses in the early phase of severe sepsis: longitudinal study of mononuclear histocompatibility leukocyte antigen-DR expression, procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, and changes in T-cell subsets in septic and postoperative patients. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 30(5):1015-1023.
  • SPITTLER A, RAZENBERGER M, KUPPER H et al.: Relationship between interleukin-6 plasma concentration in patients with sepsis, monocyte phenotype, monocyte phagocytic properties, and cytokine production. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2000) 31(6):1338-1342.
  • OCZENSKI W, KRENN H, JILCH R et al.: HLA-DR as a marker for increased risk for systemic inflammation and septic complications after cardiac surgery. Intensive Care Med. (2003) 29(8):1253-1257.
  • VOLK HD, REINKE P, KRAUSCH D et al.: Monocyte deactivation-rationale for a new therapeutic strategy in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. (1996) 22(Suppl. 4):S474-S481.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.