Emerging pharmacotherapies for diabetic macular edema

• WILD S, ROGLIC G, GREEN A et al.: Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care (2004) 27(5):1047-1053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RYAN SJ, HINTON DR, SCHACHAT AP et al.: Retina (4th Edition). Elsevier Mosby.
   Google Scholar
• MEYER CH: Current treatment approaches in diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmologica (2007) 221(2):118-131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FERRARA N: Vascular endothelial growth factor: basic science and clinical progress. Endocr. Rev. (2004) 25:581-611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEFANSSON E, LANDERS MB: How does vitrectomy affect diabetic macular edema? Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2006) 141:984.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• STEFANSSON E: The therapeutic effects of retinal laser treatment and vitrectomy: a theory based on oxygen and vascular physiology. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. (2001) 79:435-440.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GREWING R, MESTER U: Early vitrectomy for progressive diabetic proliferations covering the macula. Br. J. Ophthalmol. (1994) 78:433-436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NASRALLAH FP, JALKH AE, VANCOPPENROLLE F et al.: The role of the vitreous in diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology (1988) 95:1335-1339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HIKICHI T, FUJIO N, AKIBA Y et al.: Association between the short-term natural history of diabetic macular edema and the vitreomacular relationship in Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ophthalmology (1997) 104:473-478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DIABETIC RETINOPATHY STUDY RESEARCH GROUP: A modification of the Airlie House classification of diabetic retinopathy. Report 7. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (1981) 21:210-226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ANTCLIFF RJ, STANFORD MR, CHAUHAN DS et al.: Comparison between optical coherence tomography and fundus fluorescein angiography for the detection of cystoids macular edema in patients with uveitis. Ophthalmology (2000) 107:593-599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EARLY TREATMENT DIABETIC RETINOPATHY STUDY RESEARCH GROUP: Photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema. ETDRS report No 4. Int. Ophthalmol. Clin. (1987) 27:254-264.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• KLEIN R, KLEIN BEK, MOSS SE et al.: The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology (1984) 91:1464-1474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• THE DIABETES CONTROL AND COMPLICATIONS TRIAL RESEARCH GROUP: The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. (1993) 329:977-986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UK PROSPECTIVE DIABETES STUDY GROUP: Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with Type 2 diabetes. Lancet (1998) 352:837-853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EARLY TREATMENT DIABETIC RETINOPATHY STUDY RESEARCH GROUP: Photocoagulation for DME early treatment diabetic retinopathy study report number 1. Arch. Ophthalmol. (1985) 103:1796-1806.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FERRIS FL, PATZ A: Macular edema: a complication of diabetic retinopathy. Surv. Ophthalmol. (1984) 28(Suppl.):452-461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRESNICK GH: Diabetic maculopathy: a critical review highlighting diffuse macular edema. Ophthalmology (1983) 90:1301-1317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OLK RJ: Modified grid argon (blue-green) laser photocoagulation for diffuse diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology (1986) 93:938-950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LAM RF, LAI WW, CHAN WM et al.: Vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema with and without internal limiting membrane removal. Ophthalmologica (2006) 220:206.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• STEFANSSON E, LANDERS MB: How does vitrectomy affect diabetic macular edema? Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2006) 141:984.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• YANYALI A, HOROZOGLU F, CELIK E et al.: Long-term outcomes of pars plana vitrectomy with internal limiting membrane removal in diabetic macular edema. Retina (2007) 27(5):557-566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHIMONAGANO Y, MAKIUCHI R, MIYAZAKI M et al.: Results of visual acuity and foveal thickness in diabetic macular edema after vitrectomy. Jpn J. Ophthalmol. (2007) 51:204-209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BAHADIR M, ERTAN A, MERTOGLU O: Visual acuity comparison of vitrectomy with and without internal limiting membrane removal in the treatment of diabetic macular edema. Int. Ophthalmol. (2005) 6(1-2):3-8.
   Google Scholar
• STOLBA U, BINDER S, GRUBER D et al.: Vitrectomy for persistent diffuse diabetic macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2005) 140(2):295-301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ANTONETTI DA, WOLPERT EB, DEMAIO L et al.: Hydrocortisone decreases retinal endothelial cell water and solute flux coincident with increased content and decreased phosphorylation of occluding. J. Neurochem. (2002) 80:667-677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EDELMAN JL, LUTZ D, CASTRO MR: Corticosteroids inhibit VEGF-induced vascular leakage in a rabbit model of blood-retinal and blood-aqueous barrier breakdown. Exp. Eye Res. (2005) 80:249-258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GAO H, QIAO X, GAO R et al.: Intravitreal triamcinolone does not alter basal vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA expression in rat retina. Vision Res. (2004) 44:349-356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BROOKS HL, CABALLERO S, NEWELL CK et al.: Vitreous levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and stromal-derived factor 1 in patients with diabetic retinopathy and cystoid macular edema before and after intraocular injection of triamcinolone. Arch. Ophthalmol. (2004) 122:1801-1807.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STELLATO C: Post-transcriptional and non-genomic effects of glucocorticoids. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. (2004) 1:255-263.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ZHOU ZH, BUBIEN JK: Non-genomic regulation of ENaC by aldosterone. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. (2001) 281:C1118-C1130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PENFOLD PL, GYORY JF, HUNYOR AB, BILLSON FA: Exudative macular degeneration and intravitreal triamcinolone. A pilot study. Aust. NZ J. Ophthalmol. (1995) 23(4):293-298.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MARTIDIS A, DUKER JS, GREENBERG PB et al.: Intravitreal triamcinolone for refractory diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology (2002) 109(5):920-927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JONAS JB, KREISSIG I, SOFKER A et al.: Intravitreal injection of triamcinolone for diffuse diabetic macular edema. Arch. Ophthalmol. (2003) 121(1):57-61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHIEH JJ, ROTH DB, LIU M et al.: Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for diabetic macular edema. Retina (2005) 25(7):828-834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MASSIN P, AUDREN F, HAOUCHINE B et al.: Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for diabetic diffuse macular edema. Preliminary results of a prospective controlled trial. Ophthalmology (2004) 111:218-224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OH JY, SEO JH, AHN JK et al.: Early versus late intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Korean J. Ophthalmol. (2007) 21(1):18-20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• KOUTSANDREA C, MOSCHOS MM, BROUZAS D et al.: Intraocular triamcinolone acetonide for pseudophakic cystoid macular edema: optical coherence tomography and multifocal electroretinography study. Retina (2007) 27(2):159-164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MORRISON VL, KOZAK I, LABREE LD et al.: Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for the treatment of immune recovery uveitis macular edema. Ophthalmology (2007) 114(2):334-339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MOSCHOS MM, BROUZAS D, LOUKIANOU E et al.: Intraocular triamcinolone acetonide for macular edema due to CRVO. A multifocal-ERG and OCT study. Doc. Ophthalmol. (2007) 114(1):1-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GILLIES MC, SUTTER FK, SIMPSON JM et al.: Intravitreal triamcinolone for refractory diabetic macular edema: two-year results of a double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Ophthalmology (2006) 113(9):1533-1538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LAM DS, CHAN CK, MOHAMED S et al.: A prospective randomized trial of different doses of intravitreal triamcinolone for diabetic macular oedema. Br. J. Ophthalmol. (2007) 91(2):199-203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AVITABILE T, LONGO A, REIBALDI A: Intravitreal triamcinolone compared with macular laser grid photocoagulation for the treatment of cystoid macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2005) 140:695-702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• QUIRAM PA, GONZALES CR, SCHWARTZ SD: Severe steroid-induced glaucoma following intravitreal injection of triamcinolone acetonide. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2006) 141(3):580-582.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KAUSHIK S, GUPTA V, GUPTA A et al.: Intractable glaucoma following intravitreal triamcinolone in central retinal vein occlusion. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2004) 137(4):758-760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VIOLA F, MORESCALCHI F, STAURENGHI G: Argon laser trabeculoplasty for intractable glaucoma following intravitreal triamcinolone. Arch. Ophthalmol. (2006) 124(1):133-134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SMITHEN LM, OBER MD, MARANAN L et al.: Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide and intraocular pressure. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2004) 138(5):740-743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• THOMPSON JT: Cataract formation and other complications of intravitreal triamcinolone for macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2006) 141(4):629-637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WESTFALL AC, OSBORN A, KUHL D et al.: Acute endophthalmitis incidence: intravitreal Triamcinolone. Arch. Ophthalmol. (2005) 123(8):1075-1077.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MOSHFEGHI DM, KAISER PK, SCOTT IU et al.: Acute endophthalmitis following intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide injection. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2003) 136(5):791-796.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NABIH M, PEYMAN GA, TAWAKOL ME et al.: Toxicity of high-dose intravitreal dexamethasone. Int. Ophthalmol. (1991) 15:233-235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KWAK HW, D'AMICO DJ: Evaluation of the retinal toxicity and pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone after intravitreal injection. Arch. Ophthalmol. (1992) 110:259-266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAXWELL DP Jr, BRENT BD, DIAMOND JG et al.: Effect of intravitreal dexamethasone on ocular histopathology in a rabbit model of endophthalmitis. Ophthalmology (1991) 98:1370-1375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KUPPERMANN BD, BLUMENKRANZ MS, HALLER JA et al.: Randomized controlled study of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with persistent macular edema. Arch. Ophthalmol. (2007) 125(3):309-317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FLUOCINOLONE ACETONIDE OPHTHALMIC-BAUSCH & LOMB: Fluocinolone acetonide envision TD implant. Drugs RD (2005) 6:116-119.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• FLUOCINOLONE ACETONIDE IMPLANT STUDY GROUP: Fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant to treat diabetic macular edema: 3-year results of a multi–center clinical trial. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (2006) 47:E5442 (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• ADAMIS AP, MILLER JW, BERNAL MT et al.: Increased vascular endothelial growth factor levels in the vitreous of eyes with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (1994) 118:445-450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AIELLO LP, AVERY RL, ARRIGG PG et al.: Vascular endothelial growth factor in ocular fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy and other retinal disorders. N. Engl. J. Med. (1994) 331:1480-1487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MALECAZE F, CLAMENS S, SIMORRE-PINATEL V et al.: Detection of vascular endothelial growth factor messenger RNA and vascular endothelial growth factor-like activity in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. (1994) 112:1476-1482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TOLENTINO MJ, MCLEOD DS, TAOMOTO M et al.: Pathologic features of vascular endothelial growth factor-induced retinopathy in the nonhuman primate. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2002) 133:373-385.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TOLENTINO MJ, MILLER JW, GRAGOUDAS ES et al.: Intravitreous injections of vascular endothelial growth factor produce retinal ischemia and microangiopathy in an adult primate. Ophthalmology (1996) 103:1820-1828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• QAUM T, XU Q, JOUSSEN AM et al.: VEGF-initiated bloodretinal barrier breakdown in early diabetes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (2001) 42:2408-2413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISHIDA S, USUI T, YAMASHIRO K et al.: VEGF164 is proinflammatory in the diabetic retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (2003) 44:2155-2162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WOOLARD J, WANG WY, BEVAN HS et al.: VEGF165b, an inhibitory vascular endothelial growth factor splice variant: mechanism of action, in vivo effect on angiogenesis and endogenous protein expression. Cancer Res. (2004) 64(21):7822-7835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EMERSON MV, LAUER AK: Emerging therapies for the treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration and diabetic macular edema. BioDrugs (2007) 21(4):245-257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CUNNINGHAM ET Jr, ADAMIS AP, ALTAWEEL M et al.: Macugen diabetic retinopathy study group: a Phase II randomized double-masked trial of pegaptanib, an antivascular endothelial growth factor aptamer, for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology (2005) 112:1747-1757.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HURWITZ H, FEHRENBACHER L, NOVOTNY W et al.: Bevacizumab plus irinotecan, fluorouracil, and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. (2004) 350(23):2335-2342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROSENFELD PJ, MOSHFEGHI AA, PULIAFITO CA: Optical coherence tomography findings after an intravitreal injection of bevacizumab (Avastin) for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthal. Surg. Lasers Imaging (2005) 36(4):331-335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROSENFELD PJ, FUNG AE, PULIAFITO CA: Optical coherence tomography findings after an intravitreal injection of bevacizumab (Avastin) for macular edema from central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthal. Surg. Lasers Imaging (2005) 36(4):336-339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AVERY RL: Regression of retinal and iris neovascularization after intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) treatment. Retina (2006) 26(3):352-354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHWARTZ SG, HICKEY M, PULIAFITO CA: Bilateral CRAO and CRVO from thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: OCT findings and treatment with triamcinolone acetonide and bevacizumab. Ophthalmic. Surg. Lasers Imaging (2006) 37(5):420-422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MASON JO, ALBERT MA, VAIL R: Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for refractory pseudophakic cystoid macular edema. Retina (2006) 26(3):356-357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HARITOGLOU C, KOOK D, NEUBAUER A: Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) therapy for persistent diffuse diabetic macular edema. Retina (2006) 26(9):999-1005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AREVALO JF, FROMOW-GUERRA J, QUIROZ-MERCADO H et al.: Pan-American collaborative retina study group. Primary intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for diabetic macular edema: results from the Pan-American collaborative retina study group at 6-month follow-up. Ophthalmology (2007) 114(4):743-750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YANYALI A, AYTUG B, HOROZOGLU F, NOHUTCU AF: Bevacizumab (Avastin) for diabetic macular edema in previously vitrectomized eyes. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2007) 144(1):124-126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JANORIA KJ, GUNDA S, BODDU SH, MITRA AK: Novel approaches to retinal drug delivery. Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. (2007) 4:371-388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HEIER JS, ANTOSZYK AN, PAVAN PR et al.: Ranibizumab for treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration: a Phase I/II multicenter, controlled, multidose study. Ophthalmology (2006) 113(4):642.E1-E4. (Epub 14 February 2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BROWN DM, KAISER PK, MICHELS M et al.: ANCHOR study group. Ranibizumab versus verteporfin for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. N. Engl. J. Med. (2006) 355(14):1432-1444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHUN DW, HEIER JS, TOPPING TM et al.: A pilot study of multiple intravitreal injections of ranibizumab in patients with center-involving clinically significant diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology (2006) 113(10):1706-1712.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NGUYEN QD, TATLIPINAR S, SHAH SM et al.: Vascular endothelial growth factor is a critical stimulus for diabetic macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2006) 142(6):961-969.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NGUYEN QD, SHAH SM, HAFIZ G et al.: CLEAR-AMD 1 study group. A Phase I trial of an IV-administered vascular endothelial growth factor trap for treatment in patients with choroidal neovascularization due to age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology (2006) 113(9):1522.E1-1522.E14. (Epub 28 July 2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RUDGE JS, THURSTON G, DAVIS S et al.: VEGF trap as a novel antiangiogenic treatment currently in clinical trials for cancer and eye diseases, and VelociGene-based discovery of the next generation of angiogenesis targets. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. (2005) 70:411-418.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DO DV, NGUYEN QD, BROWNING DJ et al.: Results of a Phase I study of intravitreal VEGF trap in subjects with diabetic macular edema: the CLEAR-IT DME study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (2007) 48:E1430 (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• SHEETZ MJ, KING GL: Molecular understanding of hyperglycemia's adverse effects for diabetic complications. JAMA (2002) 288:2579-2588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MELLOR H, PARKER PJ: The extended protein kinase C superfamily. Biochem. J. (1998) 332:281-292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BULLOCK WH, MAGNUSON SR, CHOI S et al.: Prospects for kinase activity modulators in the treatment of diabetes and diabetic complications. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. (2002) 2:915-938.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• AIELLO LP, BURSELL SE, CLERMONT A et al.: Vascular endothelial growth factor induced retinal permeability is mediated by protein kinase C in vivo and suppressed by an orally effective β-isoform-selective inhibitor. Diabetes (1997) 46:1473-1480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• XU X, ZHU Q, XIA X et al.: Blood-retinal barrier breakdown induced by activation of protein kinase C via vascular endothelial growth factor in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Curr. Eye Res. (2004) 28:251-256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JIROUSEK M, GILLIG J, GONZALEZ C et al.: (S)-13-[(dimethylamino)methyl]-10,11,14,15-tetrahydro-4,9:16,21-dimetheno-1H,13Hdibenzo[e,k]pyrrolo [3,4-h][1,4,13]oxadiazacyclohexadecene-1,3(2H)-dione (LY333531) and related analogues: isozyme selective inhibitors of protein kinase C. J. Med. Chem. (1996) 39:2664-2671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISHII H, JIROUSEK M, KOYA D et al.: Amelioration of vascular dysfunctions in diabetic rats by an oral PKC inhibitor. Science (1996) 272:728-731.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NONAKA A, KIRYU J, TSUJIKAWA A et al.: PKC-b inhibitor (LY333531) attenuates leukocyte entrapment in retinal microcirculation of diabetic rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (2000) 41:2702-2706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ABIKO T, ABIKO A, CLERMONT A et al.: Characterization of retinal leukostasis and hemodynamics in insulin resistance and diabetes: role of oxidants and protein kinase-C activation. Diabetes (2003) 52:829-837.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DANIS R, BINGAMAN D, JIROUSEK M, YANG Y: Inhibition of intraocular neovascularization caused by retinal ischemia in pigs by PKC inhibition with LY333531. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (1998) 39:171-179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• THE PKC-DRS STUDY GROUP: The effect of ruboxistaurin on visual loss in patients with moderately severe to very severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy: initial results of the protein kinase C β inhibitor diabetic retinopathy study (PKCDRS) multicenter randomized clinical trial. Diabetes (2005) 54(7):2188-2197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PKC-DRS2 GROUP: Effect of ruboxistaurin on visual loss in patients with diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology (2006) 113(12):2221-2230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• THE PKC-DMES STUDY GROUP: Effect of ruboxistaurin in patients with diabetic macular edema: thirty-month results of the randomized PKC-DMES clinical trial. Arch. Ophthalmol. (2007) 125(3):318-324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PROPPER DJ, MCDONALD AC, MAN A et al.: Phase I and pharmacokinetic study of PKC412, an inhibitor of protein kinase C. J. Clin. Oncol. (2001) 19(5):1485-1492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CAMPOCHIARO PA, C99-PKC412-003 STUDY GROUP: Reduction of diabetic macular edema by oral administration of the kinase inhibitor PKC412. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (2004) 45(3):922-931.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SEO M, KWAK N, OZAKI H et al.: Dramatic inhibition of retinal and choroidal neovascularization by oral administration of a kinase inhibitor. Am. J. Pathol. (1999) 154:1743-1753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SIMO R, CARRASCO E, FONOLLOSA A et al.: Deficit of somatostatin in the vitreous fluid of patients with diabetic macular edema. Diabetes Care (2007) 30(3):725-727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KIRKEGAARD C, NORGAARD K, SNORGAARD O et al.: Effect of one year continuous subcutaneous infusion of a somatostatin analogue, octreotide, on early retinopathy, metabolic control and thyroid function in Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh) (1990) 122(6):766-772.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HERNAEZ-ORTEGA MC, SOTO-PEDRE E, MARTIN JJ: Sandostatin LAR for cystoid diabetic macular edema: a 1-year experience. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. (2004) 64(1):71-72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GROWTH HORMONE ANTAGONIST FOR PROLIFERATIVE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY STUDY GROUP: The effect of a growth hormone receptor antagonist drug on proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology (2001) 108(12):2266-2272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COLHOUN HM, BETTERIDGE DJ, DURRINGTON PN et al.: Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in Type 2 diabetes in the collaborative atorvastatin diabetes study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet (2004) 364(9435):685-696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KLEIN BEK, MOSS SE, KLEIN R, SURAWICZ TS: The wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy, XII: relationship of serum cholesterol to retinopathy and hard exudates. Ophthalmology (1991) 98:1261-1265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHEW EY, KLEIN ML, FERRIS FL III: Association of elevated serum lipid levels with retinal hard exudate in diabetic retinopathy. Early treatment diabetic retinopathy study (ETDRS) report 22. Arch. Ophthalmol. (1996) 114(9):1079-1084.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GUPTA A, GUPTA V, THAPAR S, BHANSALI A: Lipid-lowering drug atorvastatin as an adjunct in the management of diabetic macular edema. Am. J. Ophthalmol. (2004) 137:675-682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHRISTOFORIDIS JB, ADAMIS AP, D'AMICO DJ: Medical treatment of diabetic macular edema with rofecoxib. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. (2005) 46:E391 (Abstract).
   Google Scholar
• KE TL, GRAFF G, SPELLMAN JM, YANNI JM: Nepafenac, a unique nonsteroidal prodrug with potential utility in the treatment of trauma-induced ocular inflammation: II. In vitro bioactivation and permeation of external ocular barriers. Inflammation (2000) 24(4):371-384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GAMACHE DA, GRAFF G, BRADY MT et al.: Nepafenac, a unique nonsteroidal prodrug with potential utility in the treatment of trauma-induced ocular inflammation: I. Assessment of anti-inflammatory efficacy. Inflammation (2000) 24(4):357-370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KERN TS, MILLER CM, DU Y et al.: Topical administration of nepafenac inhibits diabetes-induced retinal microvascular disease and underlying abnormalities of retinal metabolism and physiology. Diabetes (2007) 56(2):373-379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Websites

• http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/news/ docs/dpp.htm Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC's Diabetes Program – News and Information – Press Releases – (2000).
   Google Scholar
• http://www.regeneron.com/company/press_detail.asp?v_c_id=252 REGENERON: Company Information. Press releases (2006).
   Google Scholar
• http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/44387.php MediLexicon International Ltd. Acuity Pharmaceuticals Reports Positive Initial Phase II Results For Bevasiranib (Cand5) In Wet AMD (2007).
   Google Scholar
• http://www.bioadvance.com/downloads/fact-sheets/ACU_FS_0807.pdf Acuity Pharmaceuticals (2006).
   Google Scholar
• http://www.caringfordiabetes.com/ER/ConferenceReports/AAO2006_Las_Vegas/C575BhavsarFuture.cfm The Caring for Diabetes Educational Forum (2007).
   Google Scholar