49
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Targeting endogenous inhibitors of apoptosis for treatment of cancer, stroke and multiple sclerosis

Pages 241-253 | Published online: 25 Feb 2005

Bibliography

  • KISCHKEL FC, HELLBARDT S, BEHRMANN I et al.: Cytotoxicity-dependent APO-1 (Fas/CD95)-associated proteins form a death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) with the receptor. EMBO J. (1995) 14(22):5579–5588.
  • SALVESEN GS, DIXIT VM: Caspase activation: the induced-proximity model. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1999) 96(20):10964–10967.
  • BUDIHARDJO I, OLIVER H, LUTTER M, LUO X, WANG X: Biochemical pathways of caspase activation during apoptosis. Anna. Rev Cell Dev. Biol. (1999) 15:269–290.
  • ZOU H, HENZEL WJ, LIU X, LUTSCHG A, WANG X: Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase-3. Cell (1997) 90(3):405–413.
  • RODRIGUEZ J, LAZEBNIK Y: Caspase-9 and APAF-1 form an active holoenzyme. Genes Dev. (1999) 13(24):3179–3184.
  • CAIN K, BRATTON SB, LANGLAIS C et al: Apaf-1 oligomerizes into biologically active approximately 700-kDa and inactive approximately 1.4-MDa apoptosome complexes. J. Biol. Chem. (2000) 275(9):6067–6070.
  • RON D: Translational control in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response. Gin. Invert. (2002) 110(10):1383–1388.
  • NAKAGAWA T, ZHU H, MORISHIMA N et al: Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-P. Nature (2000) 403(6765):98–103.
  • ••First report on the role of caspase 12 inER-mediated apoptosis.
  • MORISHIMA N, NAKANISHI K, TAKENOUCHI H, SHIBATA T, YASUHIKO Y: An endoplasmic reticulum stress-specific caspase cascade in apoptosis. cytochrome c- independent activation of caspase-9 by caspase-l2. .1 Biol. Chem. (2002) 277(37):34287–34294.
  • NICHOLSON DW: Caspase structure, proteolytic substrates, and function during apoptotic cell death. Cell Death Differ. (1999) 6(11):1028–1042.
  • •A detailed review on caspases
  • CROOK NE, CLEM RJ, MILLER LK: An apoptosis-inhibiting baculovirus gene with a zinc finger-like motif. J. Virol (1993) 67(4):2168–2174. First report on viral IAPs.
  • LISTON P, FONG WG, KORNELUK RG: The inhibitors of apoptosis: there is more to life than Bc12.Oncogene (2003) 22(53):8568–8580.
  • LACASSE EC, BAIRD S, KORNELUK RG, MACKENZIE AE: The inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs) and their emerging role in cancer. Oncogene (1998) 17(25):3247–3259.
  • MILLER LK: An exegesis of IAP s: salvation and surprises from BIR motifs. Trends Cell Biol. (1999) 9(8):323–328.
  • SALVESEN GS, DUCKETT CS: Apoptosis: IAP proteins: blocking the road to death's door. Nat. Rev Ma Cell. Biol. (2002) 3(6):401–410.
  • WEBER CH, VINCENZ C: The death domain superfamily: a tale of two interfaces? Trends Biochem. Sci. (2001) 26(8):475–481.
  • HOLCIK M, KORNELUK RG: XIAP, the guardian angel. Nat. Rev. Ma Cell. Biol. (2001) 2(7):550–556.
  • HOLCIK M, GIBSON H, KORNELUK RG: XIAP: apoptotic brake and promising therapeutic target. Apoptosis (2001) 6(4):253–261.
  • TAKAHASHI R, DEVERAUX Q, TAMM I et al.: A single BIR domain of XIAP sufficient for inhibiting caspases. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273(14):7787–7790.
  • DEVERAUX QL, REED JC: TAP family proteins - suppressors of apoptosis. Genes Dev. (1999) 13(3):239–252.
  • SUN C, CAI M, MEADOWS RP et al.: NMR structure and mutagenesis of the third bir domain of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein XIAP J. Biol. Chem. (2000) 275(43):33777–33781.
  • SRINIVASULA SM, HEGDE R, SALEH A et al.: A conserved XIAP-interaction motif in caspase-9 and Smac/DIABLO regulates caspase activity and apoptosis. Nature (2001) 410(6824):112–116.
  • ••First structural study illuminating themechanism of Smac/Diablo mediated relieve of XIAP anti-caspase activity.
  • RIEDL SJ, RENATUS M, SCHWARZENBACHER R et al.: Structural basis for the inhibition of caspase-3 by XIAP. Cell (2001) 104(5):791–800.
  • ••First structural examination ofXIAP-caspase 3 interaction.
  • HUANG Y, PARK YC, RICH RL et al: Structural basis of caspase inhibition by XIAP. differential roles of the Linker versus the BIR domain. Cell (2001) 104(5):781–790.
  • ••Structural study identifying the rolesof XIAP BIR and linker regions in caspase binding.
  • CHAT J, SHIOZAKI E, SRINIVASULA SM et al.: Structural basis of caspase-7 inhibition by XIAP. Cell (2001) 104(5):769–780.
  • ••First structural report on caspase-7 andXIAP interaction.
  • ROY N, DEVERAUX QL, TAKAHASHI R, SALVESEN GS, REED JC: The c-TAP-1 and c-TAP-2 proteins are direct inhibitors of specific caspases. EMBO J. (1997) 16(23):6914–6925.
  • DEVERAUX QL, LEO E, STENNICKE HR et al.: Cleavage of human inhibitor of apoptosis protein XIAP results in fragments with distinct specificities for caspases. EMBO J. (1999) 18(19):5242–5251.
  • BRATTON SB, WALKER G, SRINIVASULA SM et al.: Recruitment, activation and retention of caspases-9 and -3 by Apaf-1 apoptosome and associated XIAP complexes. EMBO J. (2001) 20(5):998–1009.
  • •Firt report suggesting that XIAP associates with the apoptosome.
  • ZHOU Q, KREBS JF, SNIPAS SJ et al: Interaction of the baculovirus anti-apoptotic protein p35 with caspases. Specificity, kinetics, and characterization of the caspase/p35 complex. Biochemistry (Mosc) (1998) 37(30):10757–10765.
  • XU G, CIRILLI M, HUANG Y et al.: Covalent inhibition revealed by the crystal structure of the caspase-8/p35 complex. Nature (2001) 410(6827):494–497.
  • ••First structural assesment of baculoviral TAP protein p35 interaction with caspase–8.
  • AMBROSINI G, ADIDA C, ALTIERI DC: A novel anti-apoptosis gene, survivin, expressed in cancer and lymphoma. Nat. Med. (1997) 3(8):917–921.
  • ••First report suggesting the involvementof IAPs in cancer.
  • CHU ZL, MCKINSEY TA, LIU L et al.:Suppression of tumor necrosis factor-induced cell death by inhibitor of apoptosis c-IAP2 is under NF-icB control. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94(19):10057–10062.
  • STEHLIK C, DE MARTIN R, KUMABASHIRI I et al.: Nuclear factor (NF)-KB-regulated X chromosome-linked iap gene expression protects endothelial cells from tumor necrosis factor a-induced apoptosis. J. Exp. Med. (1998) 188(1):211–216.
  • HOLCIK M, LEFEBVRE CA, YEH C, CHOW T, KORNELUK RG: A new internal-ribosome-entry-site motif potentiates XIAP-mediated cytoprotection. Nat. Cell Biol. (1999) 1(3):190–192.
  • •Identification of a unique mechanism that regulates translation of XIAP in response to cellular stress.
  • HOLCIK M, YEH C, KORNELUK RG, CHOW T: Translational upregulation of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) increases resistance to radiation induced cell death. Oncogene (2000) 19(36):4174–4177.
  • YANG Y, FANG S, JENSEN JP, WEISSMAN AM, ASHVVELL JD: Ubiquitin protein ligase activity of IAPs and their degradation in proteasomes in response to apoptotic stimuli. Science (2000) 288(5467):874–877.
  • ••The ubiquitin ligase activity of IAPs wasidentified for the first time.
  • LI X, YANG Y, ASH WELL JD: TNF-RII and c-IAP1 mediate ubiquitination and degradation of TRAF2.Nature (2002) 416(6878):345–347.
  • HUANG H, JOAZEIRO CA, BONFOCO E et al: The inhibitor of apoptosis, cIAP2, functions as a ubiquitin-protein ligase and promotes M vitro monoubiquitination of caspases 3 and 7.J. Biol. Chem. (2000) 275(35):26661–26664.
  • SUZUKI Y, NAKABAYASHI Y, TAKAHASHI R: Ubiquitin-protein ligase activity of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein promotes proteasomal degradation of caspase-3 and enhances its anti-apoptotic effect in Fas-induced cell death. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. USA (2001) 98: 8662–8667.
  • DU C, FANG M, LI Y, LI L, WANG X: Smac, a mitochondrial protein that promotes cytochrome c-dependent caspase activation by eliminating TAP inhibition. Cell (2000) 102(1):33–42.
  • ••Identification and characterization of thefirst mammalian TAP interacting protein.
  • VERHAGEN AM, EKERT PG, PAKUSCH M et al: Identification of DIABLO, a mammalian protein that promotes apoptosis by binding to and antagonizing TAP proteins. Cell (2000) 102(1):43–53.
  • ••Identification and characterization of thefirst mammalian TAP interacting protein.
  • CHAT J, DU C, WU JW et al: Structural and biochemical basis of apoptotic activation by Smac/DIABLO. Nature (2000) 406(6798):855–862.
  • ••Structural report identifying themechanism of Smac/XIAP interaction and Smac function.
  • LIU Z, SUN C, OLEJNICZAK ET et al.: Structural basis for binding of Smac/DIABLO to the XIAP BIR3 domain. Nature (2000) 408(6815):1004–1008.
  • ••Structural report identifying themechanism of Smac/XIAP interaction and Smac function.
  • WU G, CHAT J, SUBER TL et al.: Structural basis of TAP recognition by Smac/DIABLO. Nature (2000) 408(6815):1008–1012.
  • ••Structural report identifying themechanism of Smac/XIAP interaction and Smac function.
  • MARTINS LM: The serine protease omi/A2: a second mammalian protein with a reaper-like function. Cell Death Differ. (2002) 9(7):699–701.
  • SRINIVASULA SM, DATTA P, KOBAYASHI M et al.: Sickle, a novel Drosophila death gene in the reaper/hid/grim region, encodes an IAP-inhibitory protein. Can: Biol. (2002) 12(2):125–130.
  • TENEV T, ZACHARIOU A, WILSON R, PAUL A, MEIER P: Jafrac2 is an IAP antagonist that promotes cell death by liberating Dronc from DIAP1.EMBO (2002) 21(19):5118–5129.
  • ADRAIN C, CREAGH EM, MARTIN SJ: Apoptosis-associated release of Smac/DIABLO from mitochondria requires active caspases and is blocked by Bc1-2.EMBO (2001) 20(23):6627–6636.
  • SRINIVASULA SM, DATTA P, FAN XJ et al.: Molecular Determinants of the Caspase-promoting Activity of Smac/DIABLO and Its Role in the Death Receptor Pathway. J. Biol. Chem. (2000) 275(46):36152–36157.
  • ROBERTS DL, MERRISON W, MACFARLANE M, COHEN GM: The inhibitor of apoptosis protein-binding domain of Smac is not essential for its proapoptotic activity. J. Cell Biol. (2001) 153(1):221–228.
  • LISTON P, FONG WG, KELLY NL et al.: Identification of XAF1 as an antagonist of XIAP anti-caspase activity. Nat. Cell Biol. (2001) 3(2):128–133.
  • ••Identification and characterization of aprotein that inhibits XIAP anti-caspase activity by a mechanism that is distinct from Smac.
  • FONG WG, LISTON P, RAJCAN-SEPAROVIC E et al.: Expression and genet. analyses of XIAP-associated factor 1 (XAF1) in cancer cell lines. Gnomic s (2000) 70(1):113–122.
  • JORDAN BW, DINEV D, LEMELLAY V et al.: Neurotrophin receptor-interacting mage homologue is an inducible inhibitor of apoptosis protein-interacting protein that augments cell death. J. Biol. Chem. (2001) 276(43):39985–39989.
  • HAY BA, WASSARMAN DA, RUBIN GM: Drosophila homologs of baculovirus inhibitor of apoptosis proteins function to block cell death. Cell (1995) 83(7):1253–1262.
  • HARLIN H, REFFEY SB, DUCKETT CS, LINDSTEN T, THOMPSON CB: Characterization of XIAP-deficient mice. MM. Cell. Biol. (2001) 21(10):3604–3608.
  • POTTS PR, SINGH S, KNEZEK M, THOMPSON CB, DESHMUKH M: Critical function of endogenous XIAP in regulating caspase activation during sympathetic neuronal apoptosis. J. Cell Biol. (2003) 163:789–799.
  • HOLCIK M, THOMPSON CS, YARAGHI Z et al: The hippocampal neurons of neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein 1 (NAIP1)-deleted mice display increased vulnerability to kainic acid-induced injury. Proc. Nati Acad. Sd. USA (2000) 97(5):2286–2290.
  • UREN AG, WONG L, PAKUSCH M et al.: Survivin and the inner centromere protein INCENP show similar cell-cycle localization and gene knockout phenotype. Curr. Biol. (2000) 10(21):1319–1328.
  • LI F, ACKERMANN EJ, BENNETT CF et al.: Pleiotropic cell-division defects and apoptosis induced by interference with survivin function. Nat. Cell Biol. (1999) 1(8):461–466.
  • CONTE D, LISTON P, WONG JW, WRIGHT KE, KORNELUK RG: Thymocyte-targeted overexpression of xiap transgene disrupts T lymphoid apoptosis and maturation. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. USA (2001) 98(9):5049–5054.
  • ROBLES MS, LEONARDO E, CRIADO LM, IZQUIERDO M, MARTINEZ AC: Inhibitor of apoptosis protein from Orgyia pseudotsugata nuclear polyhedrosis virus provides a costimulatory signal required for optimal proliferation of developing thymocytes. Immunol. (2002) 168(4):1770–1779.
  • BALIGA BC, KUMAR S: Role of Bc1-2 family of proteins in malignancy. Hematol. Oncol (2002) 20(2):63–74.
  • JAATTELA M: Escaping cell death: survival proteins in cancer. Exp. Cell Res. (1999) 248(1):30–43.
  • TAMM I, KORNBLAU SM, SEGALL H et al.: Expression and prognostic significance of IAP-family genes in human cancers and myeloid leukemias. Clin. Cancer Res. (2000) 6(5):1796–1803.
  • HOFMANN HS, SIMM A, HAMMER A, SILBER RE, BARTLING B: Expression of inhibitors of apoptosis (IAP) proteins in non-small cell human lung cancer. J. Cancer Res. Gin. Oncol (2002) 128(10):554–560.
  • TANAKA K, IWAMOTO S, GON G et al.: Expression of survivin and its relationship to loss of apoptosis in breast carcinomas. Clin. Cancer Res. (2000) 6(1):127–134.
  • RODEL F, HOFFMANN J, GRABENBAUER GG et al.: High survivin expression is associated with reduced apoptosis in rectal cancer and may predict disease-free survival after preoperative radiochemotherapy and surgical resection. Strahlenther. Onkol. (2002) 178(8):426–435.
  • KAWASAKI H, ALTIERI DC, LU CD et al.: Inhibition of apoptosis by survivin predicts shorter survival rates in colorectal cancer. Cancer Res. (1998) 58(22):5071–5074.
  • IMOTO I, YANG ZQ, PIMKHAOKHAM A et al.: Identification of cIAP1 as a candidate target gene within an amplicon at 11q22 in esophageal squamous cell carcinomas. Cancer Res. (2001) 61(18):6629–6634.
  • IMOTO I, TSUDA H, HIRASAWA A et al.: Expression of cIAP1, a target for 11q22 amplification, correlates with resistance of cervical cancers to radiotherapy. Cancer Res. (2002) 62(17)4860–4866.
  • MACINTYRE E, WILLERFORD D, MORRIS SW: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: molecular features of B cell lymphoma. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) (2000):180–204.
  • BAENS M, STEYLS A, DIERLAMM J, DE WOLF-PEETERS C, MARYNEN P: Structure of the MLT gene and molecular characterization of the genomic breakpoint junctions in the t(11;18)(q21;q21) of marginal zone B-cell lymphomas of MALT type. Genes Chromosomes Cancer (2000) 29(4):281–291.
  • UREN AG, O'ROURKE K, ARAVIND LA et al.: Identification of paracaspases and metacaspases: two ancient families of caspase-like proteins, one of which plays a key role in MALT lymphoma. MM. Cell (2000) 6(4):961–967.
  • ERL W, HANSSON GK, DE MARTIN R et al.: Nuclear factor-K B regulates induction of apoptosis and inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1 expression in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res. (1999) 84(6)668–677.
  • HONG SY, YOON WH, PARK JH et al: Involvement of two NF-icB binding elements in tumor necrosis factor a-, CD40-, and Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1-mediated induction of the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 2 gene. J. Biol. Chem. (2000) 275(24):18022–18028.
  • LIU H, RUSKON-FOURMESTRAUX A, LAVERGNE-SLOVE A et al.: Resistance of t(11;18) positive gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma to Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy. Lancet (2001) 357(9249):39–40.
  • SASAKI H, SHENG Y, KOTSUJI F, TSANG BK: Down-regulation of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein induces apoptosis in chemoresistant human ovarian cancer cells. Cancer Res. (2000) 60(20):5659–5666.
  • BILIM V, KASAHARA T, HARA N, TAKAHASHI K, TOMITA Y: Role of XIAP in the malignant phenotype of transitional cell cancer (TCC) and therapeutic activity of XIAP antisense oligonucleotides against multidrug-resistant TCC M vitro. Int. I Cancer (2003) 103(1):29–37.
  • HU Y, CHERTON-HORVAT G, DRAGOWSKA Vet al.: Antisense oligonucleotides targeting XIAP induce apoptosis and enhance chemotherapeutic activity against human lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Clin. Cancer Res. (2003) 9(7):2826–2836.
  • •First report indicating that antisense oligonudeotide-mediated targeting of XIAP is effective in vivo mouse tumour models.
  • AMBROSINI G, ADIDA C, SIRUGO G, ALTIERI DC: Induction of apoptosis and inhibition of cell proliferation by survivin gene targeting. J. Biol. Chem. (1998) 273(18):11177–11182.
  • ZAFFARONI N, DAIDONE MG: Survivin expression and resistance to anticancer treatments: perspectives for new therapeutic interventions. Drug Resist. Updat. (2002) 5(2):65–72.
  • KANWAR JR, SHEN WP, KAN WAR RK, BERG RW, KRISSANSEN GW: Effects of survivin antagonists on growth of established tumors and B7-1 immunogene therapy.' Nati Cancer Inst. (2001) 93(20):1541–1552.
  • GORDON GJ, APPASANI K, PARCELLS JP et al.: Inhibitor of apoptosis protein-1 promotes tumor cell survival in mesothelioma. Carcinogenesis (2002) 23(6):1017–1024.
  • KIPP RA, CASE MA, WIST AD et al.: Molecular targeting of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins based on small molecule mimics of natural binding partners. Biochemistry (Marc) (2002) 41(23)7344–7349.
  • YANG L, MASHIMA T, SATO S et al.: Predominant suppression of apoptosome by inhibitor of apoptosis protein in non-small cell lung cancer H460 cells: therapeutic effect of a novel polyarginine-conjugated Smac peptide. Cancer Res. (2003) 63(4):831–837.
  • FRANKLIN MC, KADKHODAYAN S, ACKERLY H et al.: Structure and function analysis of peptide antagonists of melanoma inhibitor of apoptosis (ML-IAP). Biochemistry (Mosc) (2003) 42(27)8223–8231.
  • GLOVER CJ, HITE K, DELOSH R et al.: A high-throughput screen for identification of molecular mimics of Smac/DIABLO utilizing a fluorescence polarization assay. Anal. Biochem. (2003) 320(2):157–169.
  • FULDA S, WICK W, WELLER M, DEBATIN KM: Smac agonists sensitize for Apo2L/TRAIL- or anticancer drug-induced apoptosis and induce regression of malignant glioma in vivo. Nat. Med. (2002) 8(8):808–815.
  • SCHIMMER AD, WELSH K, PINILLA C et al.: Small-molecule antagonists of apoptosis suppressor XIAP exhibit broad antitumor activity. Cancer Cell (2004) 5(1):25–35.
  • ••First report that identified small moleculetargeted against XIAP as being effective as a potent anti-cancer agent both in vivo and in vitro without significant negative side effects.
  • DU Y, BALES KR, DODEL RC et al.: Activation of a caspase 3-related cysteine protease is required for glutamate-mediated apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons. Proc. Nati Acad. Sci. USA (1997) 94(21):11657–11662.
  • CHEN J, NAGAYAMA T, JIN K et al.: Induction of caspase-3-like protease may mediate delayed neuronal death in the hippocampus after transient cerebral ischemia. Neurosci. (1998) 18(13):4914–4928.
  • CAO G, PEI W, LAN J et al.: Caspase-activated DNase/DNA fragmentation factor 40 mediates apoptotic DNA fragmentation in transient cerebral ischemia and in neuronal cultures. Neurosci. (2001) 21(13):4678–4690.
  • SCHULZ JB, WELLER M, MOSKOWITZ MA: Caspases as treatment targets in stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. Ann. Neurol. (1999) 45(4):421–429.
  • LI H, COLBOURNE F, SUN P et al.: Caspase inhibitors reduce neuronal injury after focal but not global cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke (2000) 31(1):176–182.
  • XU DG, CROCKER SJ, DOUCET JP et al.: Elevation of neuronal expression of NAIP reduces ischemic damage in the rat hippocampus. Nat. Med. (1997) 3(9):997–1004.
  • ••Identification of TAP-mediated genetherapy as a potential approach for the treatment of ischearnia.
  • XU D, BUREAU Y, MCINTYRE DC et al.: Attenuation of ischemia-induced cellular and behavioral deficits by X chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein overexpression in the rat hippocampus. I Neurosci. (1999) 19(12):5026–5033.
  • KUGLER S, STRATEN G, KREPPEL F et al.: The X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) prevents cell death in axotomized CNS neurons in vivo. Cell Death Differ. (2000) 7(9):815–824.
  • MCKINNON SJ, LEHMAN DM, TAHZIB NG et al.: Baculoviral IAP repeat-containing-4 protects optic nerve axons in a rat glaucoma model. MM. Then. (2002) 5(6):780–787.
  • CROCKER SJ, WIGLE N, LISTON P et al.: NAIP protects the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway in an intrastriatal 6-0HDA rat model of Parkinson's disease. Ear: Neurosci. (2001) 14(2):391–400.
  • SEMRA YK, SEIDI OA, SHARIEF MK: Disease activity in multiple sclerosis correlates with T lymphocyte expression of the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins. Neuroimmunol. (2002) 122(1-2):159–166.
  • YONG VW: Differential mechanisms of action of interferon-I3 and glatiramer aetate in MR. Neurology (2002) 59(6):802–808.
  • SEGAL BM, CROSS AH: Fas(t) track to apoptosis in MS: TNF receptors may suppress or potentiate CNS demyelination. Neurology (2000) 55 (7) :906–907.
  • SHARIEF MK: Increased cellular expression of the caspase inhibitor FLIP in intrathecal lymphocytes from patients with multiple sclerosis. I Neuroimmunol. (2000) 111(1-2):203–209.
  • SHARIEF MK: Impaired Fas-independent apoptosis of T lymphocytes in patients with multiple sclerosis. I Neuroimmunol. (2000) 109(2):236–243.
  • MACCHI B, MATTEUCCI C, NOCENTINI U et al: Defective Fas ligand production in lymphocytes from MS patients. Neuromport (2001) 12(18):4113–4116.
  • MACCHI B, MATTEUCCI C, NOCENTINI U, CALTAGIRONE C, MASTINO A: Impaired apoptosis in mitogen-stimulated lymphocytes of patients with multiple sclerosis. Neuroreport (1999) 10(2):399–402.
  • ZANG YC, KOZOVSKA MM, HONG J et al.: Impaired apoptotic deletion of myelin basic protein-reactive T cells in patients with multiple sclerosis. Ear. Immunol. (1999) 29(5):1692–1700.
  • SHARIEF MK, SEMRA YK: Upregulation of the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins in activated T lymphocytes from patients with multiple sclerosis. Neuroimmunol. (2001) 119(2):350–357.
  • •First report identifying IAPs as candidate genes associated with MS.
  • SHARIEF M, NOORI M, ZOUKOS Y: Reduced expression of the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins in T cells from patients with multiple sclerosis following interferon-3 therapy. J. Neuroimmunol. (2002) 129(1-2):224.
  • EKERT PG, SILKE J, VAUX DL: Caspase inhibitors. Cell Death Differ. (1999) 6(11):1081–1086.
  • MAIER JK, LAHOUA Z, GENDRON NH et al: The neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein is a direct inhibitor of caspases 3 and 7.Neurosci. (2002) 22(6):2035–2043.
  • SHINS, SUNG BJ, CHO YS et al.: An anti-apoptotic protein human survivin is a direct inhibitor of caspase-3 and -7.Biochemistry (Mosc) (2001) 40(4):1117–1123.
  • KASOF GM, GOMES BC: Livin, a novel inhibitor-of-apoptosis (TAP) family member. Biol. Chem. (2001) 276:3238–3246.
  • LAGACE M, XUAN JY, YOUNG SS et al: Genomic organization of the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis and identification of a novel testis-specific transcript. Cenomics (2001) 77(3):181–188.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.