Benefits and risks of pharmacological and surgical treatments for essential tremor: disease mechanisms and current management

Bibliography

• LOUIS ED, FORD B, BARNES LF: Clinical subtypes of essential tremor. Arch. Neurol (2000) 57(8):1194–1198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••An interesting article that definesthe different types of ET, based on a prospective review of clinical cases.
   Google Scholar
• LOUIS ED, OTTMAN R, HAUSER WA: How common is the most common adult movement disorder? Estimates of the prevalence of essential tremor throughout the world. Mov. Disord. (1998) 13(1):5–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRITTON TC: Essential tremor and its variants. Curr. Opia Neurol (1995) 8(4):314–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RAJPUT AH, OFFORD KP, BEARD CM, KURLAND LT: Essential tremor in Rochester, Minnesota: a 45-year study. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1984) 47(5):466–470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HAERER AF, ANDERSON DW, SCHOENBERG BS: Prevalence of essential tremor. Results from the Copiah County study. Arch. Neurol (1982) 39(12):750–751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOUIS ED, MARDER K, COTE L et al: Differences in the prevalence of essential tremor among elderly African Americans, whites, and Hispanics in northern Manhattan, NY. Arch. Neurol (1995) 52(12):1201–1205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOUIS ED, FRIED LP, FITZPATRICK AL, LONGSTRETH WT, JR., NEWMAN AB: Regional and racial differences in the prevalence of physician-diagnosed essential tremor in the United States. Mov. Disord. (2003) 18(9):1035–1040.
   Google Scholar
• TANNER CM, GOLDMAN SM, LYONS KE et al.: Essential tremor in twins: an assessment of genetic versus environmental determinants of etiology. Neurology (2001) 57(8):1389–1391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••A nice prospective analysis of families andsubjects with tremor, supporting a genetic etiology of ET.
   Google Scholar
• LOUIS ED, FORD B, FRUCHT S, OTTMAN R: Mild tremor in relatives of patients with essential tremor: what does this tell us about the penetrance of the disease? Arch. Neurol (2001) 58(10):1584–1589.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GULCHER JR, JONSSON P, KONG A et al.: Mapping of a familial essential tremor gene, FET1, to chromosome 3q13. Nat. Genet. (1997) 17(1):84–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Important landmark study defining the genetic basis of ET.
   Google Scholar
• HIGGINS JJ, JANKOVIC J, LOMBARDI RQ et al.: Haplotype analysis of the ETM2 locus in familial essential tremor. Neurogenetics (2003) 4(4):185–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Another landmark study that supports the familial and genetic etiology of ET.
   Google Scholar
• KOVACH MJ, RUIZ J, KIMONIS K et al.: Genetic heterogeneity in autosomal dominant essential tremor. Genet. Med. (2001) 3(3):197–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOUIS ED, ZHENG W, JUREWICZ EC et al.: Elevation of blood beta-carboline alkaloids in essential tremor. Neurology (2002) 59(12):1940–1944.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOUIS ED: Essential tremor. Lancet Neurol (2005) 4(2):100–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A useful review article discussing recent advances in the pathophysiology and management of ET.
   Google Scholar
• BRENNAN KC, JUREWICZ EC, FORD B, PULLMAN SL, LOUIS ED: Is essential tremor predominantly a kinetic or a postural tremor? A clinical and electrophysiological study. Mov. Disord. (2002) 17(2):313–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEUSCHL G, BAIN P, BRIN M: Consensus statement of the Movement Disorder Society on Tremor. Ad Hoc Scientific Committee. Mov. Disord. (1998) 13\(Suppl. 3):2–23.
   Google Scholar
• DEUSCHL G, ELBLE RJ: The pathophysiology of essential tremor. Neurology (2000) 54(11 Suppl. 4):514–520.
   Google Scholar
• KOLLER W, BIARY N, CONE S: Disability in essential tremor: effect of treatment. Neurology (1986) 36(7):1001–1004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROTHWELL JC: Physiology and anatomy of possible oscillators in the central nervous system. Mov. Disord. (1998) 13\(Suppl. 3):24–28.
   Google Scholar
• BRAZIS PW (Ed.) Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, New York, (2000:371–384.
   Google Scholar
• GHEZ C, THACH WT: The Cerebellum. Kandel ER et al (ed.) McGraw-Hill, New York, (2000):833–852.
   Google Scholar
• CHATTERJEE A, JUREWICZ EC, APPLEGATE LM, LOUIS ED: Personality in essential tremor: further evidence of non-motor manifestations of the disease. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (2004) 75(7):958–961.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MALLY J, BARANYI M, VIZI ES: Change in the concentrations of amino acids in CSF and serum of patients with essential tremor. J. Neural Transm. (1996) 103(5):555–560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••This important study documentsabnormalities in CSF concentrations of aminoacids implicated in the physiopathology of ET.
   Google Scholar
• MALLY J, BARANYI M: Change in the concentrations of amino acids in cisternal CSF of patients with essential tremor. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1994) 57(8):1012–1013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Another important study documentingabnormalities in CSF concentrations of aminoacids implicated in the physiopathology of ET.
   Google Scholar
• DEUSCHL G, WENZELBURGER R, LOFFLER K, RAETHJEN J, STOLZE H: Essential tremor and cerebellar dysfunction clinical and kinematic analysis of intention tremor. Brain (2000) 123(Pt 8):1568–1580.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• COLEBATCH JG, FINDLEY LJ, FRACKOWIAK RS, MARSDEN CD, BROOKS DJ: Preliminary report: activation of the cerebellum in essential tremor. Lancet (1990) 336(8722):1028–1030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JENKINS IH, BAIN PG, COLEBATCH JG et al.: A positron emission tomography study of essential tremor: evidence for overactivity of cerebellar connections. Ann. Neurol (1993) 34(1):82–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILLS AJ, JENKINS IH, THOMPSON PD, FINDLEY LJ, BROOKS DJ: Red nuclear and cerebellar but no olivary activation associated with essential tremor: a positron emission tomographic study. Ann. Neurol (1994) 36(4):636–642.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILLS AJ, JENKINS IH, THOMPSON PD, FINDLEY LJ, BROOKS DJ: A positron emission tomography study of cerebral activation associated with essential and writing tremor. Arch. Neurol (1995) 52(3):299–305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOUIS ED, SHUNGU DC, CHAN S et al: Metabolic abnormality in the cerebellum in patients with essential tremor: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Neurosci. Lett. (2002) 333(0:17–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ••This study using MRS documents anabnormal metabolic pattern in patients with ET, supporting the key-role of this structure in the physiopathology of ET.
   Google Scholar
• BUCHER SF, SEELOS KC, DODEL RC, REISER M, OERTEL WH: Activation mapping in essential tremor with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Ann. Neurol (1997) 41(1):32–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BENABID AL, POLLAK P, GERVASON C et al.: Long-term suppression of tremor by chronic stimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus. Lancet (1991) 337(8738):403–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BLOND S, CAPARROS-LEFEBVRE D, PARKER F et al.: Control of tremor and involuntary movement disorders by chronic stereotactic stimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus. Neurosurg. (1992) 77(1):62–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FLEMING MF, MIHIC JS, R. H: Ethanol. Hardsman JG et al (ed.) Mc-Graw Hill, New York, (2001):429.
   Google Scholar
• MORI T, AISTRUP GL, NISHIKAWA K et al.: Basis of variable sensitivities of GABA(A) receptors to ethanol. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. (2000) 24(7):965–971.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RAPPAPORT MS, GENTRY RT, SCHNEIDER DR, DOLE VP: Ethanol effects on harmaline-induced tremor and increase of cerebellar cyclic GMP. Life Sri. (1984) 34(1):49–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BOECKER H, WILLS AJ, CEBALLOS-BAUMANN A et al.: The effect of ethanol on alcohol-responsive essential tremor: a positron emission tomography study. Ann. Neurol (1996) 39(5):650–658.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BIRMINGHAM AT, MACDONALD IA: Adrenoreceptors in tremor mechanisms. Findley 1,J et al. (ed.) Marcel Dekker, New York, (1995):119–132.
   Google Scholar
• CLEEVES L, FINDLEY LJ: Beta-adrenoreceptor mechanisms in essential tremor: a comparative single dose study of the effect of a non-selective and a beta-2 selective adrenoreceptor antagonist. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1984) 47(9):976–982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KURODA Y, KAKIGI R, SHIBASAKI H: Treatment of essential tremor with arotinolol. Neurology (1988) 38(4):650–652.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JEFFERSON D, JENNER P, MARSDEN CD: beta-Adrenoreceptor antagonists in essential tremor. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1979) 42(10):904–909.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEIGH PN, MARSDEN CD, TWOMEY A, JEFFERSON D: beta-Adrenoceptor antagonists and essential tremor. Lancet (1981) 1(8229):1106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YOUNG RR, GROWDON JH, SHAHANI BT: Beta-adrenergic mechanisms in action tremor. N Engl. J. Med. (1975) 293(19):950–953.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MARSDEN CD, FOLEY TH, OWEN DA, MCALLISTER RG: Peripheral beta-adrenergic receptors concerned with tremor. Clin. (1967) 33(0:53–65.
   Google Scholar
• ABRAMSON MJ, WALTERS J, WALTERS EH: Adverse effects of beta-agonists: are they clinically relevant? Ain Respir. Med. (2003) 2(4):287–297.
   Google Scholar
• WARREN JB, O'BRIEN M, DALTON N, TURNER CT: Sympathetic activity in benign familial tremor. Lancet (1984) 1 (83704 6 1-4 62.
   Google Scholar
• MATHEW NT, TIETJEN GE, LUCKER C: Serotonin syndrome complicating migraine pharmacotherapy. Cephalalgia (1996) 16(5):323–327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KATOH A, EIGYO M, ISHIBASHI C et al: Behavioral and electroencephalographic properties of duloxetine (LY248686), a reuptake inhibitor of norepinephrine and serotonin, in mice and rats./. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. (1995) 272(3):1067–1075.
   Google Scholar
• VITEK JL, WICHMAN T, DELONG R: Current conepts of basal ganglia neurophysiology relative to tremorogenesis. Findley 1,J et al. (Ed.) MArcel Dekker, New York, (1995):37–50.
   Google Scholar
• GIRONELL A, KULISEVSKY J, BARBANOJ M et al.: A randomized placebo-controlled comparative trial of gabapentin and propranolol in essential tremor. Arch. Neurol (1999) 56(4):475–480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••This elegant prospective study comparestwo different treatment modalities and response rates in patients with ET.
   Google Scholar
• CALZETTI S, FINDLEY LJ, PISANI F, RICHENS A: Phenylethylmalonamide in essential tremor. A double-blind controlled study. I Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1981) 44(10):932–934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHARNEY D, MIHIC SJ, HARRIS RA: Hypnotics and Sedatives. Hardman JG et al. (Ed.) Mc-Graw Hill, New York, (2000399.
   Google Scholar
• KOLLER WC, ROYSE VL: Efficacy of primidone in essential tremor. Neurology (1986) 36(1):121–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FINDLEY LJ, CLEEVES L, CALZETTI S: Primidone in essential tremor of the hands and head: a double blind controlled clinical study. I. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1985) 48(9):911–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GORMAN WP, COOPER R, POCOCK P, CAMPBELL MJ: A comparison of primidone, propranolol, and placebo in essential tremor, using quantitative analysis. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1986) 49(1):64–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TWYMAN RE, ROGERS CJ, MACDONALD RL: Differential regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor channels by diazepam and phenobarbital. Ann. Neurol (1989) 25(3):213–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FINDLEY LJ, CLEEVES L: Phenobarbitone in essential tremor. Neurology (1985) 35(12):1784–1787.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BARUZZI A, PROCACCIANTI G, MARTINELLI P et al.: Phenobarbital and propranolol in essential tremor: a double-blind controlled clinical trial. Neurology (1983) 33(3):296–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SASSO E, PERUCCA E, CALZETTI S: Double-blind comparison of primidone and phenobarbital in essential tremor. Neurology (1988) 38(5):808–810.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PRIVITERA MD: Topiramate: a new antiepileptic drug. Ann. Phannacother. (1997) 31(10):1164–1173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHITE HS, BROWN SD, WOODHEAD JH, SKEEN GA, WOLF HH: Topiramate enhances GABA-mediated chloride flux and GABA-evoked chloride currents in murine brain neurons and increases seizure threshold. Epilepsy Res. (1997) 28(3):167–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHITE HS, BROWN SD, WOODHEAD JH, SKEEN GA, WOLF HH: Topiramate modulates GABA-evoked currents in murine cortical neurons by a nonbenzodiazepine mechanism. Epilepsia (2000) 41\(Suppl. 1):517–520.
   Google Scholar
• CONNOR GS: A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of topiramate treatment for essential tremor. Neurology (2002) 59(1):132–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••A well-conducted prospective studyassessing a novel therapeutic approach for patients with ET.
   Google Scholar
• GATTO EM, ROCA MC, RAINA G, MICHELI F: Low doses of topiramate are effective in essential tremor: a report of three cases. Clin. Neuropharmacol (2003) 26(6):294–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HILL DR, SUMAN-CHAUHAN N, WOODRUFF GN: Localization of PHIgabapentin to a novel site in rat brain: autoradiographic studies. Eur. Phannacol (1993) 244(3):303–309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WAMIL AW, MCLEAN MJ: Limitation by gabapentin of high frequency action potential firing by mouse central neurons in cell culture. Epilepsy Res. (1994) 17(1):1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOCSIS JD, HONMOU O: Gabapentin increases GABA-induced depolarization in rat neonatal optic nerve. Neurosci. Lett. (1994) 169(1-2):181–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ONDO W, HUNTER C, VUONG KD, SCHWARTZ K, JANKOVIC J: Gabapentin for essential tremor: a multiple-dose, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Mov. Disord. (2000) 15(4):678–682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PAHWA R, LYONS K, HUBBLE JP et al: Double-blind controlled trial of gabapentin in essential tremor. Mov. Disord. (1998) 13(3):465–467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GUNAL DI, AFSAR N, BEKIROGLU N, AKTAN S: New alternative agents in essential tremor therapy: double-blind placebo-controlled study of alprazolam and acetazolamide. Neurol Li. (2000) 21(5):315–317.
   Google Scholar
• HUBER SJ, PAULSON GW: Efficacy of alprazolam for essential tremor. Neurology (1988) 38(2):241–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• THOMPSON C, LANG A, PARKES JD, MARSDEN CD: A double-blind trial of clonazepam in benign essential tremor. Clin. Neurophannacol (1984) 7(1):83–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BIARY N, PIMENTAL PA, LANGENBERG PW: A double-blind trial of clonazepam in the treatment of parkinsonian dysarthria. Neurology (1988) 38(2):255–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BIARY N, KOLLER W: Kinetic predominant essential tremor: successful treatment with clonazepam. Neurology (1987) 37(3):471–474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MALLY J, STONE TW: Efficacy of an adenosine antagonist, theophylline, in essential tremor: comparison with placebo and propranolol. Neurol Sci. (1995) 132(2):129–132.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MALLY J, STONE TW: The effect of theophylline on essential tremor: the possible role of GABA. Phannacol Biochern. Behav. (1991) 39(2):345–349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DRAYER DE: Lipophilicity, hydrophilicity, and the central nervous system side effects of beta blockers. Phannacotherapy (1987) 7(4):87–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOLLER WC: Long-acting propranolol in essential tremor. Neurology (1985) 35(1):108–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WINKLER GE YOUNG RR: Efficacy of chronic propranolol therapy in action tremors of the familial, senile or essential varieties. N Engl. J. Med. (1974) 290(18):984–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TOLOSA ES, LOEWENSON RB: Essential tremor: treatment with propranolol. Neurology (1975) 25(10:1041–1044.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MORGAN MH, HEWER RL, COOPER R: Effect of the beta adrenergic blocking agent propranolol on essential tremor. I Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1973) 36(4):618–624.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CALZETTI S, FINDLEY LJ, PERUCCA E, RICHENS A: The response of essential tremor to propranolol: evaluation of clinical variables governing its efficacy on prolonged administration. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1983) 46(5):393–398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOLLER WC, ROYSE VL: Time course of a single oral dose of propranolol in essential tremor. Neurology (1985) 35(10):1494–1498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CALZETTI S, SASSO E, BARATTI M, FAVA R: Clinical and computer-based assessment of long-term therapeutic efficacy of propranolol in essential tremor. Acta Neurol Land. (1990) 81(5):392–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOLLER WC, VETERE-OVERFIELD B: Acute and chronic effects of propranolol and primidone in essential tremor. Neurology (1989) 39(12):1587–1588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEIGH PN, JEFFERSON D, TWOMEY A, MARSDEN CD: Beta-adrenoreceptor mechanisms in essential tremor; a double-blind placebo controlled trial of metoprolol, sotalol and atenolol. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1983) 46(8):710–715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LARSEN TA, TERAVAINEN H, CALNE DB: Atenolol versus propranolol in essential tremor. A controlled, quantitative study. Acta Neurol Scand. (1982) 66(5):547–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CALZETTI S, FINDLEY LJ, GRESTY MA, PERUCCA E, RICHENS A: Metoprolol and propranolol in essential tremor: a double-blind, controlled study. I Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1981) 44(9):814–819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CALZETTI S, FINDLEY LJ, PERUCCA E, RICHENS A: Controlled study of metoprolol and propranolol during prolonged administration in patients with essential tremor. J. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1982) 45(10):893–897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEE KS, KIM JS, J.W. K et al: A Multicenter randomized crossover multiple-dose comparison study of arotinolol and propranolol in essential tremor. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. (2003) 9(6):341–347.
   Google Scholar
• CACCIA MR, OSIO M, GALIMBERTI V, CATALDI G, MANGONI A: Propranolol, clonidine, urapidil and trazodone infusion in essential tremor: a double-blind crossover trial. Acta Neurol Land. (1989) 79(5):379–383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CACCIA MR, MANGONI A: Clonidine in essential tremor: preliminary observations from an open trial. J. Neurol (1985) 232 (1): 55–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOLLER W, HERBSTER G, CONE S: Clonidine in the treatment of essential tremor. Mov. Disord. (1986) 1(4):235–237.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• PACT V, GIDUZ T: Mirtazapine treats resting tremor, essential tremor, and levodopa-induced dyskinesias. Neurology (1999) 53(5):1154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PAHWA R, LYONS KE: Mirtazapine in essential tremor: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Mov. Disord. (2003) 18(5):584–587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SEEMAN P: Atypical antipsychotics: mechanism of action. Can. J. Psychiatry (2002) 47(1):27–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YETIMALAR Y, IRTMAN G, GURGOR N, BASOGLU M: Olanzapine efficacy in the treatment of essential tremor. Eur. Neurol (2003) 10(1):79–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FACTOR SA, FRIEDMAN JH: The emerging role of clozapine in the treatment of movement disorders. Mov. Disord. (1997) 12(0483–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CERAVOLO R, SALVETTI S, PICCINI P eta].: Acute and chronic effects of clozapine in essential tremor. Mov. Disord. (1999) 14(3):468–472.
   Google Scholar
• BIARY N, BAHOU Y, SOFI MA, THOMAS W, AL DEEB SM: The effect of nimodipine on essential tremor. Neurology (1995) 45(8):1523–1525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TOPAKTAS S, ONUR R, DALKARA T: Calcium channel blockers and essential tremor. Eur. Neurol (1987) 27(2):114–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GARCIA RUIZ PJ, GARCIA DE YEBENES PROUS J, JIMENEZ JIMENEZ J: Effect of nicardipine on essential tremor: brief report. Clin. Neurophannacol (1993) 16(5):456–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JIMENEZ-JIMENEZ FJ, GARCIA-RUIZ PJ, CABRERA-VALDIVIA F: Nicardipine versus propranolol in essential tumor. Acta Neurol (Napoli) (1994) 16(4):184–188.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BIARY N, AL DEEB SM, BAHOU Y: Long-term therapy of essential tremor with flunarizine. Eur. Neurol (1995) 35(4):217–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BIARY N, AL DEEB SM, LANGENBERG P: The effect of flunarizine on essential tremor. Neurology(1991) 41(2 (Pt 1)):311–312.
   Google Scholar
• MICHELI F, PARDAL MF, GATTO M et al.: Flunarizine- and cinnarizine-induced extrapyramidal reactions. Neurology (1987) 37(5):881–884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MUENTER MD, DAUBE JR, CAVINESS JN, MILLER PM: Treatment of essential tremor with methazolamide. Mayo Clin. Proc. (1991) 66(10):991–997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BUSENBARK K, PAHWA R, HUBBLE J et al.: Double-blind controlled study of methazolamide in the treatment of essential tremor. Neurology (1993) 43(5):1045–1047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BUSENBARK K, PAHWA R, HUBBLE J, KOLLER W: The effect of acetazolamide on essential tremor: an open-label trial. Neurology (1992) 42(7):1394–1395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SINTON CM, KROSSER BI, WALTON KD, LLINAS RR: The effectiveness of different isomers of octanol as blockers of harmaline-induced tremor. Pflugers Arch. (1989) 414(1):31–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BUSHARA KO, GOLDSTEIN SR, GRIMES GJ, JR., BURSTEIN AH, HALLETT M: Pilot trial of 1-octanol in essential tremor. Neurology (2004) 62(1):122–124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ••An interesting small prospectivestudy assessing a novel therapeutic approach for patients with ET.
   Google Scholar
• SIRVEN JI: Antiepileptic drug therapy for adults: when to initiate and how to choose. Mayo Clin. Proc. (2002) 77(12):1367–1375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BITON V: Zonisamide: newer antiepileptic agent with multiple mechanisms of action. Expert Rev Neurother. (2004) 4(6):935–943.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MORITA S, MIWA H, KONDO T: Effect of zonisamide on essential tremor: a pilot crossover study in comparison with arotinolol. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. (2005) 11(2):101–103. A well-conducted small study assessing a novel therapeutic approach for patients with ET.
   Google Scholar
• FRUCHT SJ, LOUIS ED, CHUANG C, FAHN S: A pilot tolerability and efficacy study of levetiracetam in patients with chronic myoclonus. Neurology (2001) 57(6):1112–1114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BUSHARA KO, MALIK T, EXCONDE RE: The effect of levetiracetam on essential tremor. Neurology (2005) 64(6):1078–1080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••A well-conducted small prospectivestudy assessing a novel alternative for patients with ET.
   Google Scholar
• HALLETT M, RAVITS J, DUBINSKY RIVI, GILLESPIE MM, MOINFAR A: A double-blind trial of isoniazid for essential tremor and other action tremors. Mov. Disord. (1991) 6(3):253–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JANKOVIC J: Botulinum toxin in movement disorders. Curr. Opin. Neurol. (1994) 7(4):358–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JANKOVIC J, BRIN MF: Therapeutic uses of botulinum toxin. N Engl. J. Med. (1991) 324(17):1186–1194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JANKOVIC J, SCHWARTZ K: Botulinum toxin treatment of tremors. Neurology (1991) 41(8):1185–1188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRIN ME LYONS KE, DOUCETTE J et al: A randomized, double masked, controlled trial of botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Neurology (2001) 56(10:1523–1528.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• JANKOVIC J, SCHWARTZ K, CLEMENCE W, ASWAD A, MORDAUNT J: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Mov. Disord. (1996) 11(3):250–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PAHWA R, BUSENBARK K, SWANSON-HYLAND EF et al: Botulinum toxin treatment of essential head tremor. Neurology (1995) 45(4):822–824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NAGASEKI Y, SHIBAZAKI T, HIRAI T et al.: Long-term follow-up results of selective VIM-thalamotomy. Neurosurg. (1986) 65(3):296–302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHUURMAN PR, BOSCH DA, BOSSUYT PM et al: A comparison of continuous thalamic stimulation and thalamotomy for suppression of severe tremor. N Engl. I Med. (2000) 342(7):461–468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZIRH A, REICH SG, DOUGHERTY PM, LENZ FA: Stereotactic thalamotomy in the treatment of essential tremor of the upper extremity: reassessment including a blinded measure of outcome. J. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1999) 66(6):772–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOLLER W, PAHWA R, BUSENBARK K et al.: High-frequency unilateral thalamic stimulation in the treatment of essential and parkinsonian tremor. Ann. Neurol (1997) 42(3):292–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PAHWA R, LYONS KL, WILKINSON SB et al.: Bilateral thalamic stimulation for the treatment of essential tremor. Neurology (1999) 53(7):1447–1450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SYDOW O, THOBOIS S, ALESCH F, SPEELMAN JD: Multicentre European study of thalamic stimulation in essential tremor: a six year follow up. J. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (2003) 74(10):1387–1391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CARPENTER MA, PAHWA R, MIYAWAKI KL et al.: Reduction in voice tremor under thalamic stimulation. Neurology (1998) 50(3):796–798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KOLLER WC, LYONS KE, WILKINSON SB, PAHWA R: Efficacy of unilateral deep brain stimulation of the VIM nucleus of the thalamus for essential head tremor. Mov. Disord. (1999) 14(5):847–850.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OBWEGESER AA, UITTI RJ, TURK ME STRONGOSKY AJ, WHAREN RE: Thalamic stimulation for the treatment of midline tremors in essential tremor patients. Neurology (2000) 54(12):2342–2344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LIMOUSIN P, SPEELMAN JD, GIELEN F, JANSSENS M: Multicentre European study of thalamic stimulation in parkinsonian and essential tremor. J. Neurol Neurosurg. Psychiatry (1999) 66(3):289–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PAHWA R, LYONS KE, WILKINSON SB et al.: Comparison of thalamotomy to deep brain stimulation of the thalamus in essential tremor. Mov. Disord. (2001) 16(1):140–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TASKER RR: Deep brain stimulation is preferable to thalamotomy for tremor suppression. Surg. Neurol (1998) 49(2):145–153; discussion 153–144.
   Google Scholar
• YOUNG RF, JACQUES S, MARK R et al: Gamma knife thalamotomy for treatment of tremor: long-term results. J. Neurosurg. (2000) 93\(Suppl. 3):128–135.
   Google Scholar
• NIRANJAN A, KONDZIOLKA D, BASER S, HEYMAN R, LUNSFORD LD: Functional outcomes after gamma knife thalamotomy for essential tremor and MS-related tremor. Neurology (2000) 55(3):443–446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SIDEROWF A, GOLLUMP SM, STERN MB, BALTUCH GH, RIINA HA: Emergence of complex, involuntary movements after gamma knife radiosurgery for essential tremor. Mov. Disord. (2001) 16(5):965–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ONDO W, JANKOVIC J, SCHWARTZ K, ALMAGUER M, SIMPSON RK: Unilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation for refractory essential tremor and Parkinson's disease tremor. Neurology (1998) 51(4):1063–1069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEUSCHL G, KOSTER B, LUCKING CH, SCHEIDT C: Diagnostic and pathophysiological aspects of psychogenic tremors. Mov. Disord. (1998) 13(2):294–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BILODEAU M, KEEN DA, SWEENEY PJ, SHIELDS RW, ENOKA RM: Strength training can improve steadiness in persons with essential tremor. Muscle Nerve (2000) 23(5):771–778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHUNG W, POPPEN R, LUNDERVOLD DA: Behavioral relaxation training for tremor disorders in older adults. Biofeedback Self Regul. (1995) 20(2):123–135.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar