Advanced search
Publication Cover
Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery Volume 6, 2009 - Issue 4
Submit an article Journal homepage
799
Views
48
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

New drug delivery strategies for improved Parkinson's disease therapy

Antonio Di Stefano ‘G. d'Annunzio’ University, School of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy +39 871 355 4708; +39 871 355 4706; [email protected]
,
Piera Sozio ‘G. d'Annunzio’ University, School of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy +39 871 355 4708; +39 871 355 4706; [email protected]
,
Antonio Iannitelli ‘G. d'Annunzio’ University, School of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy +39 871 355 4708; +39 871 355 4706; [email protected]
&
Laura Serafina Cerasa ‘G. d'Annunzio’ University, School of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy +39 871 355 4708; +39 871 355 4706; [email protected]
Pages 389-404 | Published online: 22 Apr 2009

Bibliography

  • Abou-Sleiman PM, Muqit MMK, Wood NW, et al. Expanding insights of mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 2006;7:207-19
  • Singh N, Pillay V, Choonara YE. Advances in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2007;81:29-44
  • LeWitt PA. Levodopa for the treatment of Parkinson's Disease. N Engl J Med 2008;359:2468-76
  • Lyytinen J, Kaakkola S, Gordin A, et al. Entacapone and selegiline with L-dopa in patients with Parkinson's disease: an interaction study. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2000;6:215-22
  • Müller T. Dopaminergic substitution in Parkinson's Disease. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2002;2:1393-403
  • Goetz CG. New strategies with dopaminergic drugs: modified formulations of levodopa and novel agonists. Exp Neurol 1997;144:17-20
  • Gundert-Remy U, Hildebrand R, Stiehl A, et al. Intestinal absorption of levodopa in man. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1983;25:69-72
  • Fahn S. Parkinson Study Group. Does levodopa slow or hasten the rate of progression of Parkinson's Disease? J Neurol 2005;252:37-42
  • Gordin A, Kaakkola S, Teräväinen H. Clinical advantages of COMT inhibition with entacapone - a review. J Neural Transm 2004;111:1343-63
  • Kuoppamäki M, Korpela K, Marttila R, et al. Comparison of pharmacokinetic profile of levodopa throughout the day between levodopa/carbidopa/entacapone and levodopa/carbidopa when administered four or five times daily. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2009: published on line 20 February 2009, doi:10.1007/s00228-009-0622-y
  • Müller T, Erdmann C, Muhlack S, et al. Entacapone improves complex movement performance in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Clin Neurosci 2007;14:424-8
  • Onofrj M, Thomas A, Vingerhoets F, et al. Combining entacapone with levodopa/DDCI improves clinical status and quality of life in Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients experiencing wearing-off, regardless of the dosing frequency: results of a large multicentre open-label study. J Neural Transm 2004;111:1053-63
  • Rinne UK, Larsen JP, Siden A, et al. Entacapone enhances the response to levodopa in parkinsonian patients with motor fluctuations. Nomecomt Study Group. Neurology 1998;51:1309-14
  • Kurth MC, Adler CH, Hilaire MS, et al. Tolcapone improves motor function and reduces levodopa requirement in patients with Parkinson's disease experiencing motor fluctuations: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Tolcapone Fluctuator Study Group I. Neurology 1997;48:81-7
  • Baas H, Beiske AG, Ghika J, et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibition with tolcapone reduces the ‘wearing off’ phenomenon and levodopa requirements in fluctuating parkinsonian patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;63:421-8
  • Parkinson Study Group. Entacapone improves motor fluctuations in levodopa-treated Parkinson's disease patients. Parkinson Study Group. Ann Neurol 1997;42:747-55
  • Nutt JG, Woodward WR, Beckner RM, et al. Effect of peripheral catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibition on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of levodopa in parkinsonian patients. Neurology 1994;44:913-9
  • Olanow CW, Watkins PB. Tolcapone: an efficacy and safety review. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007;30:287-94
  • Olanow CW, Jankovic J. Neuroprotective therapy in Parkinson's disease and motor complications: a search for a pathogenesis-targeted, disease-modifying strategy. Mov Disord 2005;20:3-10
  • Brooks DJ. Optimizing levodopa therapy for Parkinson's disease with levodopa/carbidopa/entacapone: implications from a clinical and patient perspective. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2008;4:39-47
  • Ahlskog JE, Muenter MD, Mcmanis PG. Controlled-release Sinemet (CR-4): a double-blind crossover study in patients with fluctuating Parkinson's disease. Mayo Clin Proc 1988;63:867-86
  • Cedarbaum JM, Hoey M, Kutt H, et al. Controlled-release levodopa/carbidopa. III. Sinemet CR5 treatment response fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 1988;11:168-73
  • Cedarbaum JM, Breck L, Kutt H, et al. Controlled-release levodopa/carbidopa. II. Sinemet CR4 treatment of response fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1987;37:1607-12
  • Dupont E, Andersen A, Boas J, et al. Sustained-release Madopar HBS compared with standard Madopar in the long-term treatment of de novo parkinsonian patients. Acta Neurol Scand 1996;93:14-20
  • Block G, Liss C, Reines S, et al. Comparison of immediate-release and controlled release carbidopa/levodopa in Parkinson's disease: a multicenter 5-year study. The CR First Study Group. Eur Neurol 1997;37:23-7
  • Koller WC, Hutton JT, Tolosa E, et al. Immediate-release and controlled-release carbidopa/levodopa in PD: a 5-year randomized multicenter study. Neurology 1999;53:1012-9
  • Pappert EJ, Goetz CG, Niederman F, et al. Liquid levodopa/carbidopa produces significant improvement in motor function without dyskinesia exacerbation. Neurology 1996;47:493-5
  • Pappert EJ, Buhrfiend C, Lipton JW, et al. Levodopa stability in solution: time course, environmental effects, and practical recommendations for clinical use. Mov Disord 1996;11:24-6
  • Metman LV, Hoff J, Mouradian MM, et al. Fluctuations in plasma levodopa and motor responses with liquid and tablet levodopa/carbidopa. Mov Disord 1994;9:463-5
  • Marsden CD. Late levodopa failure – pathophysiology and management. Basel: Editiones Roche, 1993
  • Fahn S. Adverse effects of levodopa. Carnforth: Parthenon, 1992
  • Zappia M, Annesi G, Nicoletti G, et al. Sex differences in clinical and genetic determinants of levodopa peak-dose dyskinesias in Parkinson disease: an exploratory study. Arch Neurol 2005;62:601-5
  • Olanow CW, Agid Y, Mizuno Y, et al. Levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: current controversies. Mov Disord 2004;19:997-1005
  • Dewey JRB. Management of motor complications in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 2004;62:S3-7
  • Jankovic J. Motor fluctuations and dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease: clinical manifestations. Mov Disord 2005;20:S11-6
  • Jankovic J, Stacy M. Medical management of levodopa-associated motor complications in patients with Parkinson's Disease. CNS Drugs 2007;21:677-92
  • McColl CD, Reardon KA, Shiff M, et al. Motor response to levodopa and the evolution of motor fluctuations in the first decade of treatment of Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2002;17:1227-34
  • Thanvi BR, Lo TCN. Long term motor complications of levodopa: clinical features, mechanisms, and management strategies. Postgrad Med J 2004;80:452-8
  • Nyholm D. Pharmacokinetic optimization in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: an update. Clin Pharmacokinet 2006;45:109-36
  • Kurth MC. Using liquid levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: a practical guide. Drugs Aging 1997;10:332-40
  • Stocchi F, Vacca L, Ruggieri S, et al. Intermittent vs continuous levodopa administration in patients with advanced Parkinson disease: a clinical and pharmacokinetic study. Arch Neurol 2005;62:905-10
  • Nilsson D, Hansson LE, Johansson K, et al. Long-term intraduodenal infusion of a water based levodopa–carbidopa dispersion in very advanced Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand 1998;97:75-83
  • Gordon M, Markhamc J, Hartlein JM, et al. Intravenous levodopa administration in humans based on a two-compartment kinetic model. J Neurosci Methods 2007;159:300-7
  • Nyholm D. The rationale for continuous dopaminergic stimulation in advanced Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2007;13:13-7
  • Stocchi F, Vacca L, Ruggieri S, et al. Infusion of levodopa methyl ester in patients with advanced PD: a clinical and pharmacokinetic study. Arch Neurol 2005;62:905-10
  • Kurlan R, Rubin AJ, Miller C, et al. Duodenal delivery of levodopa for on-off fluctuations in parkinsonism: preliminary observations. Ann Neurol 1986;20:262-5
  • Sage JI, Trooskin S, Sonsalla PK, et al. Long-term duodenal infusion of levodopa for motor fluctuations in parkinsonism. Ann Neurol 1988;24:87-9
  • Ruggieri S, Stocchi F, Carta A, et al. Jejunal delivery of levodopa methylester. Lancet 1989;8653:45-6
  • Syed N, Murphy J, Zimmerman T, et al. Ten years' experience with enteral levodopa infusions for motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1998;13:336-8
  • Kurth MC, Tetrud JW, Tanner CM, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of duodenal infusion of levodopa/carbidopa in Parkinson's disease patients with ‘on-off’ fluctuations. Neurology 1993;43:1698-703
  • Duodopa® website. Available from: www.duodopa.com [Last accessed 6 October 2008]
  • Nyholm D, Nilsson Remahl AI, Dizdar N, et al. Duodenal levodopa infusion monotherapy vs oral polypharmacy in advanced Parkinson disease. Neurology 2005;64:216-23
  • Antonini A, Isaias IU, Canesi M, et al. Duodenal levodopa infusion for advanced Parkinson's disease: 12-month treatment outcome. Mov Disord 2007;22:1145-9
  • Samanta J, Hauser RA. Duodenal levodopa infusion for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2007;8:657-64
  • Sage JL, Mchale DM, Sonsalla P, et al. Continuous levodopa infusions to treat complex dystonia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1989;39:888-91
  • Nyholm D, Askmark H, Gomes-Trolin C, et al. Optimizing Levodopa pharmacokinetics: intestinal infusion versus oral sustained-release tablets. Clin Neuropharmacol 2003;26:156-63
  • Nyholm D, Lewander T, Johansson A, et al. Enteral levodopa/carbidopa infusion in advanced Parkinson disease: long-term exposure. Clin Neuropharmacol 2008;31:63-73
  • Iwase H, Sudo J, Terui J, et al. Transdermal absorption of L-dopa from a new system composed of two separate layers of L-dopa and hydrogel in rats. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2000;26:755-9
  • Kankkunen T, Huupponen I, Lahtinen K, et al. Improved stability and release control of levodopa and metaraminol using ion exchange fibers and transdermal iontophoresis. Eur J Pharm Sci 2002;16:273-80
  • Sabel BA, Dominiak P, Haeuser W, et al. Levodopa delivery from controlled-release polymer matrix: delivery of more than 600 days in vitro and 225 days of elevated plasma levels after subcutaneous implantation in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990;255:914-22
  • Birkmayer W, Danielcyk W, Neumayer E, et al. L-dopa level in plasma, primary condition for the kinetic effect. J Neural Transm 1973;34:133-43
  • Leppert PS, Cortese M, Fix JA. The effects of carbidopa dose and time and route of administration on systemic L-Dopa levels in rats. Pharm Res 1988;5:587-91
  • Sasahara K, Nitanai T, Habara T, et al. Dosage form design for improvement of bioavailability of levodopa IV: possible causes of low bioavailability of oral levodopa in dogs. J Pharm Sci 1981;70:730-3
  • Hutton JH, Morris JL, Gustavo CR. Treatment of chronic Parkinson's disease with controlled-release carbidopa/levodopa. Neurology 1988;45:861-4
  • Bordor N, Sloan KB, Higuchi T, et al. Improved delivery through biological membranes 4: prodrugs of L-dopa. J Med Chem 1977;20:1435-45
  • Goole J, Vanderbist F, Amighi K. Development and evaluation of new multiple-unit levodopa sustained-release floating dosage forms. Int J Pharm 2007;334:35-41
  • Wang H, Lee J, Tsai M, et al. Synthesis and pharmacological activities of a novel tripeptide mimetic dopamine prodrug. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1995;5:2195-98
  • Marrel C, Boss G, Van De Waterbeemd H, et al. L-Dopa esters as potential prodrugs. Eur J Med Chem 1985;20:459-65
  • Cooper DR, Marrel C, Van De Waterbeemd H, et al. L-Dopa methyl ester – a candidate for chronic systemic delivery of L-Dopa in Parkinson's disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 1984;7:89-8
  • Garzon-Aburbeh A, Poupaert JH, Claesen M, et al. A lymphotropic prodrug of L-dopa: synthesis, pharmacological properties, and pharmacokinetic behavior of 1,3-dihexadecanoyl-2-[(S)-2-amino-3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)prop anoyl] propane-1,2,3-triol. J Med Chem 1986;29:687-91
  • Cooper DR, Marrel C, Van De Waterbeemd H, et al. L-dopa esters as potential prodrugs: effect on brain concentration of dopamine metabolites in reserpinized mice. J Pharm Pharmacol 1987;39:809-18
  • Cooper DR, Marrel C, Van De Waterbeemd H, et al. L-dopa esters as potential prodrugs: behavioural activity in experimental models of Parkinson's disease. J Pharm Pharmacol 1987;39:627-35
  • Ihara M, Tsuchiya Y, Sawasaki Y, et al. New potential prodrug to improve the duration of L-dopa: L-3-(3-hydroxy-4-pivaloyloxyphenyl)alanine. J Pharm Sci 1989;78:525-29
  • Cingolani GM, Di Stefano A, Mosciatti B, et al. Synthesis of L-(+)-3-(3-hydroxy-4-pivaloyloxybenzyl)-2, 5-diketomorpholine as potential prodrug of L-dopa. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2000;10:1385-8
  • Stocchi F, Ruggieri S, Carta A, et al. Intravenous boluses and continuous infusions of L-DOPA methyl ester in fluctuating patients with Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1992;7:249-56
  • Djaldetti R, Melamed E. Levodopa ethylester: a novel rescue therapy for response fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1996;39:400-4
  • Singh G, Sharma PD. Mutual prodrugs: a recent trend in prodrug design. Indian J Pharm Sci 1994;56:69-79
  • More SS, Vince R. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of glutathione peptidomimetics as components of anti-Parkinson prodrugs. J Med Chem 2008;51:4581-8
  • Rosini M, Andrisano V, Bartolini M, et al. Multi-target-directed drug design strategy: from a dual binding site acetylcholinesterase inhibitor to a trifunctional compound against Alzheimer's disease. J Med Chem 2007;50:6446-9
  • Sozio P, Iannitelli A, Cerasa LS, et al. New L-Dopa codrugs as potential antiparkinson agents. Arch Pharm 2008;341:412-7
  • Di Stefano A, Sozio P, Cocco A, et al. L-Dopa- and Dopamine-(R)-α-Lipoic acid conjugates as multifunctional codrugs with antioxidant properties. J Med Chem 2006;49:1486-93
  • Pinnen F, Cacciatore I, Cornacchia C, et al. Synthesis and study of L-Dopa-Glutathione codrugs as new anti-Parkinson agents with free radical scavenging properties. J Med Chem 2007;50:2506-15
  • Schapira AH. Dopamine agonists and neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol 2002;9:7-14
  • Schapira AH. Neuroprotection and dopamine agonists. Neurology 2002;58:S9-S18
  • Schapira AH. Neuroprotection in PD a role for dopamine agonists? Neurology 2003;61:34-42
  • Schapira AH, Olanow CW. Rationale for the use of dopamine agonists as neuroprotective agents in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2003;53:149-57
  • Jain S, Water CH. Controversies of dopamine agonists: somnolence, cardiac valvulopathy and repetitive behaviors. Curr Drug Ther 2007;2:17-20
  • Stocchi F, Vacca L, Onofrj M. Are there clinically significant differences between dopamine agonists. Adv Neurol 2003;91:259-66
  • Menon R, Stacy M. Apomorphine in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2007;8:1941-50
  • Ul HI, Lewitt PA, Fernandez HH. Apomorphine therapy in Parkinson's disease: a review. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2007;8:2799-809
  • Neef C, van Laar T. Pharmacokinetic–pharmacodynamic relationships of apomorphine in patients with Parkinson's disease. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999;37:257-71
  • Obering CD, Chen JJ, Swope DM. Update on apomorphine for the rapid treatment of hypomobility (‘Off’) episodes in Parkinson's Disease. Pharmacotherapy 2006;26:840-52
  • Kolls BJ, Stacy M. Apomorphine: a rapid rescue agent for the management of motor fluctuations in advanced Parkinson Disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 2006;29:292-301
  • Pahwa R, Koller WC, Trosch RM, et al. Subcutaneous apomorphine in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease: a dose-escalation study with randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover evaluation of a single dose. J Neurol Sci 2007;258:137-43
  • Trosch RM, Silver D, Bottini PB. Intermittent subcutaneous apomorphine therapy for ‘off’ episodes in Parkinson's disease: a 6-month open-label study. CNS Drugs 2008;22(6):519-27
  • Apokyn website. Available from: www.apokyn.com/
  • Apo-go website. Available from: www.apo-go.co.uk/index.htm.
  • Stacya M, Silver D. Apomorphine for the acute treatment of ‘off’ episodes in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2008;14:85-92
  • Manson AJ, Turner K, Lees AJ. Apomorphine monotherapy in the treatment of refractory motor complications of Parkinson's Disease: long-term follow-up study of 64 patients. Mov Disord 2002;17:1235-41
  • Katzenschlager R, Hughes A, Evans A, et al. Continuous subcutaneous apomorphine therapy improves dyskinesias in Parkinson's Disease: a prospective study using single-dose challenges. Mov Disord 2005;20:151-7
  • García Ruiz PJ, Sesar Ignacio Á, Ares Pensado B, et al. Efficacy of long-term continuous subcutaneous apomorphine infusion in advanced Parkinson's Disease with motor fluctuations: a multicenter study. Mov Disord 2008;23:1130-6
  • Di Rosa AE, Epifanio A, Antonini A, et al. Continuous apomorphine infusion and neuropsychiatric disorders: a controlled study in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease. Neurol Sci 2003;24:174-5
  • Morgante L, Basile G, Epifanio A, et al. Continuous apomorphine infusion (CAI) and neuropsychiatric disorders in patients with advanced Parkinson's Disease: a follow-up of two years. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2004;9:291-6
  • Bowron A. Practical considerations in the use of apomorphine injectable. Neurology 2004;62:S32-6
  • Vectura product pipeline and product profiles. Available from: www.vectura.com/vec/products/pipeline/profiles/
  • Britannia products in developments. Available from: www.britannia-pharm.co.uk/partnerships.shtml#Apo-nasal%20PD.
  • Jost WH, Angersbach D, Rascol O. Clinical studies with ropinirole in Parkinson's disease and RLS. J Neurol 2006;253:16-21
  • Jost WH, Angersbach D. Ropinirole, a non-ergoline dopamine agonist. CNS Drug Rev 2005;11:253-72
  • Hubble J, Koller WC, Atchison P, et al. Linear pharmacokinetic behavior of ropinirole during multiple dosing in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Clin Pharmacol 2000;40:641-6
  • RequipXL website. Available from: www.requipxl.com/
  • Pahwa R, Stacy MA, Factor SA, et al. Ropinirole 24-hour prolonged release. Randomized, controlled study in advanced Parkinson disease. Neurology 2007;68:1108-15
  • Gallagher DA, Schrag A. Impact of newer pharmacological treatments on quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease. CNS Drugs 2008;22:563-86
  • Lees A. Alternatives to levodopa in the initial treatment of early Parkinson's disease. Drugs Aging 2005;22:731-40
  • Katzenschlager R, Sampaio C, Costa J, et al. Anticholinergics for symptomatic management of Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003;3:CD003735
  • Comella CL. Therapy of Parkinson's Disease. New York: Mercel Dekker Inc, 1995
  • Movement Disorders Society Evidence-Based Review. Management of Parkinson's disease: an evidence-based review. Mov Disord 2002;7:1-166
  • Rajput AH, Martin W, Saint-Hilaire MH, et al. Tolcapone improves motor function in parkinsonian patients with the wearing off phenomenon: a double blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Neurology 1997;49:1066-71
  • Assal F, Spahr L, Hadengue A, et al. Tolcapone and fulminant hepatitis. Lancet 1998;352:958
  • Schrag A. Entacapone in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2005;4:366-70
  • Birkmayer W, Riederer P, Youdim MBH, et al. Potentiation of the anti-akinetic effect after L-Dopa treatment by an inhibitor of MAO-B, deprenil. J Neural Transm 1975;36:303-23
  • Birkmayer W, Riederer P, Ambrozi L, et al. Implications of combined treatment with Madopar and deprenil in Parkinson's disease; a long-term study. Lancet 1977;1:434-43
  • Lees AJ, Shaw KM, Kohout LIJ, et al. Deprenyl in Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1977;2:791-5
  • Reiderer P, Reynolds GP. Deprenyl is a selective inhibitor of brain MAO-B in the long-term treatment of Parkinson's disease. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1980;9:98-9
  • Reynolds GP, Riederer P, Sandler M, et al. Amphetamine and 2-phenylethylamine in post-mortem parkinsonian brain after (-)deprenyl administration. J Neural Transm 1978;43:271-7
  • Lew MF, Pahwa R, Leehey M, et al. Safety and efficacy of newly formulated selegiline orally disintegrating tablets as an adjunct to levodopa in the management of ‘off’ episodes in patients with Parkinson's disease. Curr Med Res Opin 2007;23:741-50
  • Ondo WG, Sethi KD, Kricorian G. Selegiline orally disintegrating tablets in patients with Parkinson disease and ‘wearing off’ symptoms. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007;30:295-300
  • Waters CH, Sethi KD, Hause RA, et al. Zydis selegiline reduces off time in Parkinson's disease patients with motor fluctuations: a 3-month, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Mov Disord 2004;19:426-32
  • Clarke A, Brewer F, Johnson ES, et al. A new formulation of selegiline: improved bioavailability and selectivity for MAO-B inhibition. J Neural Transm 2003;110:1241-55
  • Clarke A, Johnson ES, Mallard N, et al. A new low-dose formulation of selegiline: clinical efficacy, patient preference and selectivity for MAO-B inhibition. J Neural Transm 2003;110:1257-71
  • Finberg JPM, Lamensdorf I, Commissiong JW, et al. Pharmacology and neuroprotective properties of rasagiline. J Neural Transm 1996;48:95-101
  • Parkinson Study Group. A controlled trial of rasagiline in early Parkinson disease. the TEMPO Study. Arch Neurol 2002;59:1937-43
  • Rascol O, Brooks DJ, Melamed E, et al. Rasagiline as an adjunct to levodopa in patients with Parkinson's disease and motor fluctuations (LARGO, Lasting effect in Adjunct therapy with Rasagiline Given Once daily, study): a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group trial. Lancet 2005;365:947-54
  • Parkinson Study Group. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of rasagiline in levodopa-treated patients with Parkinson disease and motor fluctuations. The PRESTO Study. Arch Neurol 2005;62:241-8
  • Tatton W, Chalmers-Redman R, Tatton N. Neuroprotection by deprenyl and other propargylamines: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase rather than monoamine oxidase B. J Neural Transm 2003;110:509-15
  • Tatton WG, Chalmers-Redman RM, Ju WJ, et al. Propargylamines induce antiapoptotic new protein synthesis in serum- and nerve growth factor (NGF)-withdrawn, NGF-differentiated PC-12 cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002;301:753-64
  • Olanow CW, Hauser RA, Jankovic J, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, delayed start study to assess rasagiline as a disease modifying therapy in Parkinson's Disease (The ADAGIO Study): rationale, design, and baseline characteristics. Mov Disord 2008;23:2194-201
  • Olanow CW, Rascol O. Early Rasagiline Treatment Slows UPDRS Decline in the ADAGIO Delayed Start Study. Salt Lake City, UT. 133rd Annual Meeting of the American Neurological Association, 2008
  • Stoof JC, Booij J, Drukarch B. Amantadine as a N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor antagonist: new possibilities for therapeutic application? Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1992;92:S4-6
  • Jenner P. A novel dopamine agonist for the transdermal treatment of Parkinson's disease. Neurology 2005;65:3-5
  • Belluzzi JD, Domino EF, May JM, et al. N-0923, a selective dopamine D2 receptor agonist, is efficacious in rat and monkey models of Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1994;9:147-54
  • LeWitt PA, Lyons KE, Pahwa R. Advanced Parkinson disease treated with rotigotine transdermal system PREFER Study. Neurology 2007;68:1262-7
  • Watts RL, Jankovic J, Waters C, et al. Randomized, blind, controlled trial of transdermal rotigotine in early Parkinson disease. Neurology 2007;68:272-6
  • Poewe WH, Rascol O, Quinn N, et al. The SP 515 Investigators, efficacy of pramipexole and transdermal rotigotine in advanced Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, double-dummy, randomized controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:513-20
  • Babic T, Boothmann B, Polivka J, et al. Rotigotine transdermal patch enables rapid titration to effective doses in advanced-stage idiopathic Parkinson disease: subanalysis of a parallel group, open-label, dose-escalation study. Clin Neuropharmacol 2006;29:238-42
  • Metman LV, Gillespie M, Farmer C, et al. Continuous transdermal dopaminergic stimulation in advanced Parkinson's disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 2001;2:163-9
  • Hutton JT, Metman LV, Chase TN, et al. Transdermal dopaminergic D(2) receptor agonist therapy in Parkinson's disease with N-0923 TDS: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Mov Disord 2001;16:459-63
  • Jankovic J, Watts RL, Martin W, et al. Transdermal rotigotine: double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2007;64:676-82
  • Gueldenpfennig WM, Poole KH, Sommerville KW, et al. Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of continuous transdermal dopaminergic stimulation with rotigotine patch in early-stage idiopathic Parkinson Disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 2005;28:106-10
  • Neupro website. Available from: www.neupro.com/Home/Home.asp [Last accessed 21 March 2008]
  • Scheller D, Chan P, Li Q, et al. Rotigotine treatment partially protects from MPTP toxicity in a progressive macaque model of Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol 2007;203:415-22
  • Scheller D, Stichel-Gunkel C, Lübbert H, et al. Neuroprotective effects of rotigotine in the acute MPTP-lesioned mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 2008;432:30-4
  • Allain H, Deste´e A, Petit H, et al. Five-year follow-up of early lisuride and levodopa combination therapy versus levodopa monotherapy in de novo Parkinson's disease. Eur Neurol 2000;44:22-30
  • Hayashi R, Tako K, Mikashita H, et al. Efficacy of low-dose lisuride infusion in Parkinson's disease. Intern Med 1998;37:444-8
  • Heinz A, Suchy I, Klewin I, et al. Long-term observation of chronic subcutaneous administration of lisuride in the treatment of motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm 1992;4:291-301
  • Woitalla D, Müller T, Benz S, et al. Transdermal lisuride delivery in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm Suppl 2004;68:89-95
  • Baronti F, Mouradian MM, Davis TL, et al. Continuous lisuride effects on central dopaminergic mechanisms in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1992;32:776-81
  • Vaamonde J, Luquin MR, Obeso JA. Subcutaneous lisuride infusion in Parkinson's disease: response to chronic administration in 34 patients. Brain 1991;114:601-17
  • Stocchi F, Ruggieri S, Vacca L, et al. Prospective randomized trial of lisuride infusion versus oral levodopa in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain 2002;125:2058-66
  • Stocchi F, Bramante L, Monge A, et al. Apomorphine and lisuride infusion: a comparative chronic study. Adv Neurol 1993;60:653-5
  • Ruggieri S, Stocchi F, Carta A, et al. Comparison between L-dopa and lisuride intravenous infusions: a clinical study. Mov Disord 1988;3:313-9
  • Di Stefano A, Sozio P, Iannitelli A, et al. Maleic- and fumaric-diamides of (O,O-diacetyl)-L-Dopa-methylester as anti-Parkinson prodrugs in liposomal formulation. J Drug Target 2006;14:652-61
  • Cannazza G, Di Stefano A, Mosciatti B, et al. Detection of L-DOPA, Dopamine and its metabolites in rat striatum dialysates following peripheral administration of L-DOPA prodrugs by mean of HPLC-EC. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2005;36:1079-84
  • Di Stefano A, Carafa M, Sozio P, et al. Evaluation of rat striatal L-Dopa and DA concentration after intraperitoneal administration of L-Dopa prodrugs in liposomal formulations. J Control Release 2004;99:293-300
  • Esposito E, Fantin M, Marti M, et al. Solid lipid nanoparticles as delivery systems for Bromocriptine. Pharm Res 2008;25:1521-30
  • Tomalia DA, Baker H, Dewald J, et al. A new class of polymers: starburst-dendritic macromolecules. Polym J 1985;17:117-32
  • Tomalia DA, Naylor AM, Goddard WA. Starburst dendrimers: molecular-level control of size, shape, surface chemistry, topology, and flexibility from atoms to macroscopic matter. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 1990;29:138-75
  • Tang S, Martinez LJ, Sharma MA, et al. Synthesis and characterization of water-soluble and photostable L-DOPA dendrimers. Org Lett 2006;8:4421-4
  • Illum L. Transport of drugs from the nasal cavity to the central nervous system. Eur J Pharm Sci 2000;11:1-18
  • Thorne RG, Pronk GJ, Padmanabhan V, et al. Delivery of insuline-like growth factor-I to the rat brain and spinal cord along olfactory and trigeminal pathways following intranasal administration. Neuroscience 2004;127:481-96
  • Sakane T, Akizuki M, Yoshida M, et al. Transport of cephalexin to the cerebrospinal fluid directly from the nasal cavity. J Pharm Pharmacol 1991;43:449-51
  • Sakane T, Akizuki M, Yamashita S, et al. The transport of drugs to the cerebrospinal fluid directly from the nasal cavity: the relation to the lipophilicity of the drug. Chem Pharm Bull 1991;39:2456-8
  • Kumar TA, David GFX, Sankaranarayanan A, et al. Pharmacokinetics of progesterone after its administration to ovariectomized rhesus monkeys by injection, infusion, or nasal spraying. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1982;79:4185-9
  • Kao HD, Traboulsi A, Itoh S, et al. Enhancement of the systemic and CNS specific delivery of L-Dopa by the nasal administration of its water soluble prodrugs. Pharm Res 2000;17:978-84
  • Bartus RT, Emerich D, Snodgrass-Belt P, et al. Pulmonary formulation of L-Dopa enhances its effectiveness in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2004;310:828-35
  • Schwarz Pharma press release for Parcopa® aprroval from PDA. Available from: www.schwarzpharma.com/sp/n2345/Press_Release__August_30_2004
  • Stalevo website. Available from: www.stalevo.com
  • Information on V1512. Available from: www.vernalis.com/ver/rdc2/neurology/v1512/
  • Stocchi F, Fabbri L, Vecsei L, et al. Clinical efficacy of a single afternoon dose of effervescent levodopa-carbidopa preparation (CHF 1512) in fluctuating Parkinson disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007;30:18-24
  • Information on targeted lipid transport technology for LD. Available from: www.amarincorp.com/products/amr103.480.html
  • Information on the AIR® pulmonary drug delivery technology. Available from: www.alkermes.com/products/inhaled.html.
  • Tasmar website. Available from: www.tasmar.com
  • Comtan website. Available from: www.comtan.com
  • Eldepryl information. Available from: www.somersetpharm.com/products/
  • Zelapar website. Available from: www.zelapar.com
  • Azilect website. Available from: www.azilect.com
  • Stocchi F, Vacca L, Grassini P, et al. Symptom relief in Parkinson's disease by safinamide. Biochemical and clinical evidence of efficacy beyond MAO-B inhibition. Neurology 2006;67:24-9
  • General information on Lisuride TDS and Lisuride sc. Available from: www.axxonis.com/projects_e.html
  • Mirapex website. Available from: www.mirapex.com/
  • Requip website. Available from: www.requip.com/
  • Aderis Pharmaceuticals website. Available from: www.aderis.com/products/rotigotine.htm
  • Information on apomorphine nasal powder. Available from: www.britannia-pharm.co.uk/partnerships .shtml#Apo-nasal%20PD
  • Information on sublingual apomorphine. Available from: www.amarincorp.com/products/sublingual_apomorphine.477.html
  • Information on amantadine. Available from: www.endo.com/PDF/symmetrel_pack_insert.pdf

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.