Accuracy and Precision of Stream Reach Water Surface Slopes Estimated in the Field and from Maps

References

• Bisson , P. A. , Nielsen , J. L. , Palmason , R. A. and Grove , L. E. 1982 . “ A system of naming habitat types in small streams, with examples of habitat utilization by salmonids during low streamflow ” . In Acquisition and utilization of aquatic habitat inventory information Edited by: Armantrout , N. B. 62 – 73 . Bethesda, Maryland : American Fisheries Society Western Division .
   Google Scholar
• Bolstad , P. V. , Gessler , P. and Lillesand , T. M. 1990 . Positional uncertainty in manually digitized map data . International Journal of Geographic Information Systems , 4 : 399 – 412 .
   Google Scholar
• Bolstad , P. V. and Smith , J. L. 1995 . “ Errors in GIS: assessing spatial data accuracy ” . In Wetland and environmental applications of GIS Edited by: Lyon , J. G. and McCarthy , J. 301 – 312 . New York : Lewis Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Bovee , K. D. and Milhous , R. T. 1978 . Hydraulic simulation in instream flow studies: theory and techniques , U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS-OBS-78/33 (Instream Flow Information Paper 5.)
   Google Scholar
• Fausch , K. D. 1989 . Do gradient and temperature affect distributions of, and interactions between, brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis) and other resident salmonids in streams? . Physiology and Ecology , Japan 1 : 303 – 322 .
   Google Scholar
• Frissell , C. A. , Liss , W. J. , Warren , C. E. and Hurley , M. D. 1986 . A hierarchical framework for stream habitat classification: viewing streams in a watershed context . Environmental Management , 10 : 199 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon , N. D. , McMahon , T. A. and Finlayson , B. L. 1992 . Stream hydrology, an introduction for ecologists New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Grant , G. E. , Swanson , F. J. and Wolman , M. G. 1990 . Patterns and origin of stepped-bed morphology in high-gradient streams, Western Cascades, Oregon . Geological Society of America Bulletin , 102 : 340 – 352 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton , K. and Bergersen , E. P. 1984 . Methods to estimate aquatic habitat variables Denver : Bureau of Reclamation, Engineering and Research Center .
   Google Scholar
• Herubin , C. A. 1982 . Principles of surveying, , 2nd edition Reston, Virginia : Reston Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Hogle , J. S. , Wesche , T. A. and Hubert , W. A. 1993 . A test of the precision of the habitat quality index model II . North American Journal of Fisheries Management , 13 : 640 – 643 .
   Google Scholar
• Hubert , W. A. and Kozel , S. J. 1993 . Quantitative relations of physical habitat features to channel slope and discharge in unaltered mountain streams . Journal of Freshwater Ecology , 8 : 177 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubert , W. A. , Marwitz , T. D. , Gerow , K. G. , Binns , N. A. and Wiley , R. W. 1996 . Estimation of potential maximum biomass of trout in Wyoming streams to assist management decisions . North American Journal of Fisheries Management , 16 : 821 – 829 .
   Google Scholar
• Keller , E. A. and Swanson , F. J. 1979 . Effects of large organic material on channel form and fluvial processes . Earth Surface Processes , 4 : 361 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirk , R. E. 1982 . Experimental design, , 2nd edition Pacific Grove, California : Brooks/Cole Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Knighton , D. 1984 . Fluvial forms and processes New York : Arnold .
   Google Scholar
• Kozel , S. J. and Hubert , W. A. 1989 . Testing of habitat assessment models for small trout streams in the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming . North American Journal of Fisheries Management , 9 : 458 – 464 .
   Google Scholar
• Kozel , S. J. , Hubert , W. A. and Parsons , M. G. 1989 . Habitat features and trout abundance relative to gradient in some Wyoming streams . Northwest Science , 63 : 175 – 182 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanka , R. P. , Hubert , W. A. and Wesche , T. A. 1987 . Relations of geomorphology to stream habitat and trout standing stock in small rocky mountain streams . Transactions of the American Fisheries Society , 116 : 21 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacPhee , C. 1966 . Influence of differential angling mortality and stream gradient on fish abundance in a trout–sculpin biotope . Transactions of the American Fisheries Society , 95 : 381 – 387 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martz , L. W. and Garbrecht , J. 1993 . Automated extraction of drainage network and watershed data from digital elevation models . Water Resources Bulletin , 29 : 901 – 908 .
   Google Scholar
• Morisawa , M. 1957 . Accuracy of determination of stream lengths from topographic maps . Transactions of the American Geophysical Union , 38 : 86 – 88 .
   Google Scholar
• Pearson , E. S. and Hartley , H. O. 1951 . Charts of the power function for the analysis of variance tests, derived from the noncentral F-distribution . Biometrika , 38 : 112 – 130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters , R. H. 1991 . A critique for ecology London : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Platts , W. S. , Megahan , W. F. and Minshall , G. W. 1983 . Methods for evaluating stream, riparian, and biotic conditions , U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report INT-138
   Google Scholar
• Roper , B. B. and Scarnecchia , D. L. 1995 . Observer variability in classifying habitat types in stream surveys . North American Journal of Fisheries Management , 15 : 49 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Rosgen , D. L. 1994 . A classification of natural rivers . Catena , 22 : 169 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheffé , H. 1953 . A method of judging all contrasts in the analysis of variance . Biometrika , 40 : 87 – 104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw , R. G. and Mitchell-Olds , T. 1993 . ANOVA for unbalanced data: an overview . Ecology , 74 : 1638 – 1645 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonson , T. D. , Lyons , J. and Kanehl , P. D. 1994 . Quantifying fish habitat in streams: transect spacing, sample size, and a proposed framework . North American Journal of Fisheries Management , 14 : 607 – 615 .
   Google Scholar
• Thompson , M. M. and Rosenfield , G. H. 1971 . On map accuracy specifications . Surveying and Mapping , 31 : 57 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Trautman , M. B. 1942 . Fish distribution and abundance correlated with stream gradients as a consideration in stocking programs . Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference , 7 : 211 – 224 .
   Google Scholar
• Tribe , A. 1992 . Automated recognition of valley lines and drainage networks from digital elevation models: a review and a new method . Journal of Hydrology , 139 : 263 – 293 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USGS (United States Geological Survey) . 1998 . EROS Data Center, Souix Falls, South Dakota. (On the World Wide Web at http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov.)
   Google Scholar
• Wang , L. , Simonson , T. D. and Lyons , J. 1996 . Accuracy and precision of selected stream habitat estimates . North American Journal of Fisheries Management , 16 : 340 – 347 .
   Google Scholar
• Warner , W. S. and Carson , W. W. 1991 . Errors associated with a standard digitizing tablet . International Training Centre for Aerial Survey Journal , 91 : 82 – 85 .
   Google Scholar