146
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Superficial bladder cancer: part 1. Update on etiology, classification and natural history

, &
Pages 1723-1734 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E et al. Cancer Statistics 2006. CA Cancer J. Clin.56(2), 106–130 (2006).
  • Heney NM. Natural history of superficial bladder cancer: prognostic features and long-term disease course. Urol. Clin. North Am.19, 429–433 (2002).
  • AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. Lippincott Raven Pages, PA, USA (1997).
  • Zeegers MP, Kellen E, Buntinix F et al. The association between smoking, beverage consumption, diet and bladder cancer: a systematic literature review. World J. Urol.21(6), 392–401 (2004).
  • Cohen SM, Garland EM, St John M et al. Acrolin initiates rat urinary bladder carcinogenesis. Cancer Res.52(13), 3577–3581 (1992).
  • Vineis P, Ronco G. Interindividual variation in carcinogen metabolism and bladder cancer risk. Environ. Health Perspect.98, 95–99 (1992).
  • Lower GM Jr. Concepts in causality: chemically induced human urinary bladder cancer. Cancer49, 1056–1066 (1982).
  • Yu MC, Skipper PL, Tannenbaum SR et al. Arylamine exposures and bladder cancer risk. Mutat. Res.506–507, 21–28 (2002).
  • Vineis P, Esteve J, Hartage P et al. Effects of timing and type of tobacco in cigarette-induced bladder cancer. Cancer Res.48(13), 3849–3852 (1988).
  • Fleshner N, Garland J, Moadel A et al. Influence of smoking status on the disease-related outcomes of patients with tobacco-associated superficial transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Cancer86(11), 2337–2345 (1999).
  • Clayson DB. Specific aromatic amines as occupational bladder carcinogens. Natl Cancer Inst. Monogr.58, 15–19 (1981).
  • Droller MJ. Alterations of the p53 gene in occupational bladder cancer in workers exposed to aromatic amines. J. Urol.160(2), 618 (1998).
  • Golka K, Wiese A, Assennato G et al. Occupational exposure and urological cancer. World J. Urol.21(6), 382–391 (1998).
  • Huncharek M, Kupelnick B. Personal use of hair dyes and the risk of bladder cancer: results of a meta-analysis. Public Health Rep.120(1), 31–38 (1985).
  • Piper JM, Tonascia J, Matanoski GM. Heavy phenacetin use and bladder cancer in women aged 20 to 49 years. N. Engl. J. Med.313(5), 292–295 (2005).
  • Kantor AF, Hartage P, Hoover RN. Urinary tract infection and risk of bladder cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol.119(4), 510–515 (1999).
  • Mostafa MH, Sheweita SA, O’Conner PJ. Relationship between schistosomiasis and bladder cancer. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.12(1), 97–111 (1984).
  • Fioriti D, Pietropaolo V, Dal Forno S et al. Urothelial bladder carcinoma and viral infections: different association with human polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol.16(3), 283–288 (1997).
  • Chow WH, Linbald P, Gridley G et al. Risk of urinary tract cancers following kidney or ureter stones. J. Natl Cancer Inst.89(19), 1453–1457 (2003).
  • Kaldor JM, Day NE, Kittelmann B et al. Bladder tumors following chemotherapy and radiotherapy for ovarian cancer: a case–control study. Int. J. Cancer63, 1–6 (1995).
  • Cannon J, Linke CA, Cos LR. Cyclophosphamide-associated carcinoma of urothelium: modalities for prevention. Urology38(5), 413–416 (1991).
  • Vena JE, Freudenheim J, Graham S et al. Coffee, cigarette smoking, and bladder cancer in western New York. Ann. Epidemiol.3(6), 586–591 (1993).
  • Howe GR, Burch JD, Miller AB et al. Tobacco use, occupation, coffee, various nutrients, and bladder cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst.64(4), 701–713 (1980).
  • Slattery ML, Schumacher MC, West DW et al. Smoking and bladder cancer. The modifying effect of cigarettes on other factors. Cancer61(2), 402–408 (1988).
  • Taylor JM, Weinberger MA, Friedman L. Chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity to the urinary bladder of sodium saccharin in the in utero-exposed rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.54, 57–75 (1980).
  • Wynder EL, Stellman SD. Artificial sweetener use and bladder cancer: a case-control study. Science207, 1214–1216 (1980).
  • Morrison AS, Buring JE. Artificial sweeteners and cancer of the lower urinary tract. N. Engl. J. Med.302, 537–541 (1980).
  • Sturgeon SR, Hartge P, Silverman DT et al. Associations between bladder cancer risk factors and tumor stage and grade at diagnosis. Epidemiology5, 218–225 (1994).
  • Fradet Y. Markers of prognosis in superficial bladder cancer. Semin. Urol.10, 28–38 (1992)
  • Kotake T, Saiki S, Kinouchi T et al. Detection of the cmyc gene product in urinary bladder cancer. Jpn J. Cancer Res.81, 1198–1201 (1990).
  • Moriyama M, Akiyama T, Yamamoto T et al. Expression of c-erbB-2 gene product in urinary bladder cancer. J. Urol.145, 423–427 (1991).
  • Miyao N, Tsai YC, Lerner SP et al. Role of chromosome 9 in human bladder cancer. Cancer Res.53(17), 4066–4070 (1993).
  • Kruger S, Mahnken A, Kausch I, Feller AC. p16 immunoreactivity is an independent predictor of tumor progression in minimally invasive urothelial bladder carcinoma. Eur. Urol.47(4), 463–467 (2005).
  • Simoneau AR, Spruck CH 3rd, Gonzalez-Zulueta M et al. Evidence for two tumor suppressor loci associated with proximal chromosome 9p to q and distal chromosome 9q in bladder cancer and the initial screening for GAS 1 and PTC mutations. Cancer Res.56, 5039–5043 (1996).
  • Hernandez S, Lopez-Knowles E, Lloreta J et al. Real FX. Prospective study of FGFR3 mutations as a prognostic factor in nonmuscle invasive urothelial bladder carcinomas. J. Clin. Oncol.24(22), 3664–3671 (2006).
  • Sidransky D, Von Eschenbach A, Tsai YC et al. Identification of p53 gene mutations in bladder cancers and urine samples. Science252, 706 (1991).
  • Williamson MP, Elder PA, Knowles MA. The spectrum of TP53 mutations in bladder carcinoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer9, 108–118 (1994).
  • Ishikawa J, Xu HJ, Hu SX et al. Inactivation of the retinoblastoma gene in human bladder and renal cell carcinomas. Cancer Res.51, 5736–5743 (1991).
  • Cote RJ, Dunn MD, Chatterjee SJ et al. Elevated and absent pRb expression is associated with bladder cancer progression and has cooperative effects with p53. Cancer Res.58(6), 1090–1094 (1998).
  • Cummings KB, Barone JG, Ward WS. Diagnosis and staging of bladder cancer. Urol. Clin. North Am.19, 455–465 (1992).
  • Varkarakis MJ, Gaeta J, Moore RH et al. Superficial bladder tumor: aspects of clinical progression. Urology4, 414–420 (1974).
  • Lee LW, Davis E Jr. Gross urinary hemorrhage: a symptom, not a disease. JAMA153, 782–784 (1953).
  • Sultana SR, Goodman CM, Byrne DJ et al. Microscopic haematuria urological investigation using a standard protocol Br. J. Urol.78, 691–698 (1996).
  • Messing EM, Young TB, Hunt VB et al. The significance of asymptomatic microhematuria in men 50 or more years old: findings of a home screening study using urinary dipsticks. J. Urol.137, 919–922 (1987).
  • Grossfeld GD, Wolf JS Jr, Litwan MS et al. Asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: summary of the AUA best practice policy recommendations. Am. Fam. Physician63(6), 1145–1154 (2001).
  • Badalament RA, Hermansen DK, Kimmel M et al. The sensitivity of bladder wash flow cytometry, bladder wash cytology, and voided cytology in the detection of bladder carcinoma. Cancer60(7), 1423–1427 (1987).
  • Farrow GM, Utz DC, Rife CC et al Clinical observations on sixty-nine cases of in situ carcinoma of the urinary bladder. Cancer Res.37, 2794–2798(1977).
  • Zincke H, Utz DC, Farrow GM. Review of Mayo Clinic experience with carcinoma in situ. Urology26(4 Suppl.) 39–46 (1985).
  • Anderstrom C, Johansson S, Nilsson S. The significance of lamina propria invasion on the prognosis of patients with bladder tumors. J. Urol.124, 23–26 (1980).
  • Haleblian GE, Skinner EC, Dickinson MG et al. Hydronephrosis as a prognostic indicator in bladder cancer patients. J. Urol.160 (6 Pt 1), 2011–2014 (1998).
  • van der Meijden A, Sylvester R, Collette L et al. The role and impact of pathology review on stage and grade assessment of stages Ta and T1 bladder tumors a combined analysis of 5 EORTC cancer trials. J. Urol.164, 1533–1537 (2000).
  • Witjes JA, Kiemeney LA, Schaafsma HE, Debruyn FM. The influence of review pathology on study outcome of a randomized multicentre superficial bladder cancer trial. Br. J. Urol.73, 172–176 (1994).
  • Herr HW. The value of a second transurethral resection in evaluating patients with bladder tumors. J. Urol.162, 74–76 (1999).
  • Dutta SC, Smith JA Jr, Shappell SB et al. Clinical under staging of high risk nonmuscle invasive urothelial carcinoma treated with radical cystectomy. J. Urol.166, 490–493 (2001).
  • Balbay MD, Cimentepe E, Unsal A et al. The actual incidence of bladder perforation following transurethral bladder surgery. J. Urol.174(6), 2260–2262 (2005).
  • Canales BK, Anderson JK, Premoli J et al. Risk factors for upper tract recurrence in patients undergoing long-term surveillance for stage Ta bladder cancer. J. Urol.175(1), 74–77 (2006)
  • Millán-Rodríguez F, Chéchile-Toniolo G, Salvador-Bayarri J et al. Upper urinary tract tumors after primary superficial bladder tumors: prognostic factors and risk groups. J. Urol.164, 1183–1187 (2000).
  • Herr HW, Cookson MS, Soloway SM. Upper tract tumors in patients with primary bladder cancer followed for 15 years. J. Urol.156, 1286–1287 (1996).
  • Hofstäder F, Delgado R, Jakse G et al. Urothelial dysplasia and carcinoma in situ of the bladder. Cancer57, 356–361 (1986).
  • Kiemeney LA, Witjes JA, Hiejbroek RP et al. Dysplasia in normal-looking urothelium increases the risk of tumour progression in primary superficial bladder cancer. Eur. J. Cancer30A(11), 1621–1625 (1994).
  • Jakse G, Hall R, Bono A et al. Intravesical BCG in patients with carcinoma in situ of the urinary bladder: long-term results of EORTC GU Group Phase II protocol 30861. Eur. Urol.40, 144–150 (2001).
  • Griffiths TR, Charlton M, Neal DE, Powell PH. Treatment of carcinoma in situ with intravesical bacillus Calmette–Guerin without maintenance. J. Urol.167(6), 2408–2412 (2002).
  • de Reijke TM, Kurth KH, Sylvester RJ et al. Bacillus Calmette–Guerin versus epirubicin for primary, secondary or concurrent carcinoma in situ of the bladder: results of a European Organization for the Research and Treatment of Cancer – Genito-Urinary Group Phase III Trial (30906). J. Urol.173(2), 405–409 (2005).
  • Kaasinen E, Wijkstrom H, Malmstrom PU et al. Alternating mitomycin C and BCG instillations versus BCG alone in treatment of carcinoma in situ of the urinary bladder: a nordic study. Eur. Urol.43(6), 637–645 (2003).
  • Orozco RE, Martin AA, Murphy WM. Carcinoma in situ of the urinary bladder. Clues to host involvement in human carcinogenesis. Cancer74(1), 115–122 (1994).
  • Murphy WM, Emerson LD, Chandler RW et al. Flow cytometry versus urinary cytology in the evaluation of patients with bladder cancer. J. Urol.136, 815–819 (2002).
  • Schmidbauer J, Witjes F, Schmeller N et al. For the Hexvix PCB301/01 Study Group: Improved detection of urothelial carcinoma in situ with hexaminolevulinate fluorescence cystoscopy. J. Urol.171, 135–138 (2004).
  • D’Hallewin MA, Bezdetnaya L, Guillemin F. Fluorescence detection of bladder cancer: a review. Eur. Urol.42, 417–425 (2002).
  • The Bladder Consensus Conference Committee, Epstein JI, Amin MB, ReuterVE et al. The World Health Organization/International Society of Urological Pathology consensus classification of urothelial (transitional cell) neoplasms of the urinary bladder. Am. J. Surg. Pathol.12, 1435–1448 (1998).
  • Sauter G, Algaba F, Amin M et al. Non-invasive urothelial neoplasias. WHO classification of non invasive papillary urothelial neoplasias. WHO Classification of non invasive papillary urothelial tumors. In: WHO Classification of Tumors. Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Urinary System and Male Genital Organs. Eble JN, Sauter G, Epstein JL et al. (Eds). IARCC Press, Lyon, France, 110 (2004).
  • Murphy WM, Takezawa K, Maruniak NA. Interobserver discrepancy using the 1998 World Health Organization/International Society of Urologic Pathology classification of urothelial neoplasms: practical choices for patient care. J. Urol.168(3), 968–972 (2002).
  • Montironi R, Lopez-Beltran A. The 2004 WHO classification of bladder tumors: a summary and commentary. Int. J. Surg. Pathol.13(2), 143–153 (2005).
  • Magi-Galluzzi C, Epstein JI. Urothelial papilloma of the bladder: a review of 34 de novo cases. Am. J. Surg. Pathol.28(12), 1615–1620 (2004).
  • American Joint Committee on Cancer. Urinary bladder. In: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 6th Edition. Springer, NY, USA 335–340 (2002).
  • Algaba F. Origin of high-grade superficial bladder cancer. Eur. Urol.13, 153–155 (1987).
  • Ghoneim MA, el-Mekresh MM, el-Baz MA et al. Radical cystectomy for carcinoma of the bladder: critical evaluation of the results in 1,026 cases. J. Urol.158, 393–399 (1997).
  • Jewett HJ, Strong GH. Infiltrating carcinoma of bladder: relation of depth of penetration of bladder wall to incidence of local extension and metastases. J. Urol.55, 366 (1946).
  • Younes M, Sussman J, True LD. The usefulness of the level of the muscularis mucosae in the staging of invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder. Cancer66(3), 543–548 (1990).
  • Smits G, Schaafsma E, Kiemeney L et al. Microstaging of pT1 transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: identification of subgroups with distinct risks of progression. Urology52(6), 1009–1013 (1998).
  • Orsola A, Trias I, Raventos CX et al. Initial high-grade T1 urothelial cell carcinoma: feasibility and prognostic significance of lamina propria invasion microstaging (T1a/b/c) in BCG-treated and BCG-non-treated patients. Eur. Urol.48(2), 231–238 (2005).
  • Cheng L, Weaver AL, Neumann RM et al. Substaging of T1 bladder carcinoma based on the depth of invasion measured by micrometer: a new proposal. Cancer86, 1035–1043(1999).
  • Cheng L, Neumann RM, Weaver AL et al. Predicting cancer progression in patients with stage T1 bladder carcinoma. J. Clin. Oncol.17(10), 3182–3187 (1999).
  • Esrig D, Freeman JA, Elmajian DA et al. Transitional cell carcinoma involving the prostate with a proposed staging classification for stromal invasion. J. Urol.156, 1071–1076 (1996).
  • Nijnou Ngninkeu B, Lorge F, Moulin P et al. Transitional cell carcinoma involving the prostate: a clinicopathological retrospective study of 76 cases. J. Urol.169(1), 149–152 (2003).
  • Malkowicz SB. Superficial bladder cancer: the role of molecular markers in the treatment of high-risk superficial disease. Semin. Urol. Oncol.15, 169–178 (1997).
  • Stein JP, Grossfeld GD, Ginsberg DA et al. Prognostic markers in bladder cancer: a contemporary review of the literature. J. Urol.160, 645–659 (1998).
  • Habuchi T, Marberger M, Droller MJ et al. Prognostic markers for bladder cancer: International Consensus Panel on bladder tumor markers. Urology66(6 Suppl. 1), 64–74 (2005).
  • Lutzeyer W, Rubben H, Dahm H. Prognostic parameters in superficial bladder cancer: an analysis of 315 cases. J. Urol.127, 250–252 (1982).
  • Holmang S, Hedelin H, Anderstrom C, Johansson SL. The relationship among multiple recurrences, progression and prognosis of patients with stages Ta and T1 transitional cell cancer of the bladder followed for at least 20 years. J. Urol.153, 1823–1826 (1995).
  • Millan-Rodriguez F, Chechile-Toniolo G, Salvador-Bayarri J et al. Multivariate analysis of the prognostic factors of primary superficial bladder cancer. J. Urol.163(1), 73–78 (2000).
  • Flamm J, Havelec L. Factors affecting survival in primary superficial bladder cancer. Eur. Urol.17, 113–118 (1990).
  • Kiemeney LA, Witjes JA, Heijbroek RP, Verbeek AL, Debruyne FM. Predictability of recurrent and progressive disease in individual patients with primary superficial bladder cancer. J. Urol.150, 60–64 (1993).
  • Heney NM, Ahmed S, Flanagan MJ et al. Superficial bladder cancer: progression and recurrence. J. Urol.130(6), 1083–1086 (1983).
  • Jakse G, Loidl W, Seeber G et al. Stage T1, grade 3 transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: an unfavorable tumor? J. Urol.137, 39–43 (1987).
  • Althausen AF, Prout GR Jr, Daly JJ. Non-invasive papillary carcinoma of the bladder associated with carcinoma in situ. J. Urol.116, 575–580 (1976).
  • Holmang S, Hedelin H, Anderstrom C et al. Recurrence and progression in low grade papillary urothelial tumors. J. Urol.162(3 Pt 1), 702–707 (1999).
  • Lebret T, Bohin D, Kassardjian Z et al. Recurrence, progression and success in stage Ta grade 3 bladder tumors treated with low dose bacillus Calmette–Guerin instillations. J. Urol.163(1), 63–67 (2000).
  • Sylvester RJ, van der Meijden A, Witjes JA et al. High-grade Ta urothelial carcinoma and carcinoma in situ of the bladder. Urology66(6 Suppl. 1), 90–107 (2005).
  • Witjes JA, Kiemeney LA, Schaafsma HE et al. The influence of review pathology on study outcome of a randomized multicentre superficial bladder cancer trial. Br. J. Urol.73, 172–176 (1994).
  • Van der Meijden A, Sylvester R, Collette L et al. The role and impact of pathology review on stage and grade assessment of stages Ta and T1 bladder tumors: a combined analysis of 5 European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Trials. J. Urol.164(5), 1533–1537 (2000).
  • Freeman JA, Esrig D, Stein JP et al. Radical cystectomy for high risk patients with superficial bladder cancer in the era of orthotopic urinary reconstruction. Cancer76(5), 833–839 (1995).
  • Herr HW. The value of a second transurethral resection in evaluating patients with bladder tumors. J. Urol.162, 74–76 (1999).
  • Schips L, Augustin H, Zigeuner RE et al. Is repeated transurethral resection justified in patients with newly diagnosed superficial bladder cancer? Urology59, 220–223 (2002).
  • Heney NM, Ahmed S, Flanagan MJ et al. Superficial bladder cancer progression and recurrence. J. Urol.130, 1083–1086 (1983).
  • Pauwels RP, Schapers RF, Smeets AW et al. Grading in superficial bladder cancer (1) morphological criteria. Br. J. Urol.61, 129–134 (1988).
  • Abel PD, Hall RR, Williams G. Should pT1 transitional cell cancers of the bladder be classified as superficial? Br. J. Urol.62, 235–239 (1988).
  • Sylvester RJ, van der Meijden AP, Oosterlinck W et al. Predicting recurrence and progression in individual patients with stage Ta T1 bladder cancer using EORTC risk tables: a combined analysis of 2596 patients from seven EORTC trials. Eur. Urol.49(3), 466–475 (2006).
  • Kiemeney LA, Witjes JA, Heijbroek RP et al. Dysplasia in normal-looking urothelium increases the risk of tumour progression in primary superficial bladder cancer. Eur. J. Cancer11, 1621–1625 (1994).
  • Riddle P, Chism G, Trott P et al. Flat carcinoma in situ of bladder. Br. J. Urol.47, 829–833 (1976).
  • Lamm DL. Carcinoma in situ. Urol. Clin. North Am.19, 499–508 (1992).
  • Losa A, Hurle R, Lembo A. Low dose bacillus Calmette–Guérin for carcinoma in situ of the bladder: long-term results. J. Urol.163, 68–72 (2000).
  • Jakse G, Hall R, Bono A et al. Intravesical BCG in patients with carcinoma in situ of the urinary bladder long-term results of EORTC GU Group Phase II protocol 30861. Eur. Urol.40, 144–150 (2001).
  • Parmar MK, Freedman LS, Hargreave TB et al. Prognostic factors for recurrence and follow-up policies in the treatment of superficial bladder cancer: report from the British Medical Research Council Subgroup on superficial bladder cancer (Urological Cancer Working Party). J. Urol.142(2 Pt 1), 284–288 (1989).
  • Ali-El-Dein B, Sarhan O, Hinev A et al. Superficial bladder tumours: analysis of prognostic factors and construction of a predictive index. Br. J. Urol. Int.92(4), 393–399.
  • Herr HW. Bladder cancer: natural history and implications for urothelial cancer prevention. J. Cell. Biol. Chem.16I, 112–119 (1992).
  • Bostwick DG. Natural history of early bladder cancer. J. Cell. Biochem.16I, 31–38 (1992).
  • Fitzpatrick JM, West AB, Butler MR et al. Superficial bladder tumors (stage pTa, grades 1 and 2), the importance of recurrence pattern following initial resection. J. Urol.,135, 920–922 (1986).
  • Cheng L, Cheville JC, Neumann RM et al. Survival of patients with carcinoma in situ of the urinary bladder. Cancer85(11), 2469–2474 (1999).
  • Reuter VE. Pathology of bladder cancer: assessment of prognostic variables and response to therapy. Semin. Oncol.17, 524–532 (1990).
  • Lapham RL, Grignon D, Ro JY. Pathologic prognostic parameters in bladder urothelial biopsy, transurethral resection, and cystectomy specimens. Semin. Diagn. Pathol.14, 109–122 (1997).
  • Buscarini M, Quek ML, Gill P et al. Molecular prognostic factors in bladder cancer. Br. J. Urol. Int.95(6), 739–742 (2005).
  • Dyrskjot L, Zieger K, Kruhoffer M et al. A molecular signature in superficial bladder carcinoma predicts clinical outcome. Clin. Cancer Res.11(11), 4029–4036 (2005).
  • Schmitz-Drager BJ, Goebell PJ, Ebert T et al. p53 immunohistochemistry as a prognostic marker in bladder cancer. Playground for urology scientists? Eur. Urol.38(6), 691–699 (2000).
  • Millan-Rodriguez F, Chechile-Tonilol G, Salvador-Bayarri J et al. Primary superficial bladder cancer risk groups according to progression, mortality and recurrence. J. Urol.164(3 Pt 1), 680–684 (2000).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.