Impact of antipsychotic medication on the cost of schizophrenia

References Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest •• of considerable interest

• Goldner EM, Hsu L, Waraich P, Somers JM. Prevalence and incidence studies of schizophrenic disorders: a systematic review of the literature. Can. J. Psychiatry47, 833–843 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• an der Heiden W, Häfner H. The epidemiology of onset and course of schizophrenia. Eur. Arch. Psychiatr. Clin. Neurosci.250, 292–303 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Häfner H, an der Heiden W. The course of schizophrenia in the light of modern follow-up studies: the ABC and WHO studies. Eur. Arch. Psychiatr. Clin. Neurosci.249, IV/14–IV/26 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Häfner H, an der Heiden W. Evaluating effectiveness and cost of community care for schizophrenic patients. Schizophr. Bull.17, 441–451 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chakos M, Lieberman J, Hoffman E, Bradford D, Sheitman B. Effectiveness of second-generation antipsychotics in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am. J. Psychiatry158(4), 518–526 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagnall A-M, Jones L, Ginelly L, Lewis R, Glanville J, Gilbody S. A systematic review of atypical antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia. Health Technology Assess.7(13), 1–193 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glazer WG, Johnstone BM. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation of antipsychotic therapy for schizophrenia. J. Clin. Psychiatry58(Suppl. 10), 50–54 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Revicki DA. Pharmacoeconomic studies of atypical antipsychotic drugs for the treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res.35, S101–S109 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basu A. Cost-effectiveness analysis of pharmacological treatment in schizophrenia: critical review of results and methodological issues. Schizophr. Res.71, 445–462 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamann J, Leucht S, Kissling W. Are the second-generation antipsychotics cost-effective? A critical review on the background of different health systems. Pharmacopsychiatry36, 18–26 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hudson TJ, Sullivan G, Feng W, Owen RR, Thrush CR. Economic evaluations of novel antipsychotic medications: a literature review. Schizophr. Res.60, 199–218 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revicki DA. Cost effectiveness of newer atypical antipsychotics: a review of the pharmacoeconomic research evidence. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs2, 110–117 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sevy S, Visweswaraiah H, Mentschel C, Leucht S, Schooler NR. Relationships between costs and Symptoms in schizophrenia patients treated with antipsychotic medication: a review. J. Clin. Psychiatry65, 756–765 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tunis SL, Ascher-Svanum H, Stensland M, Kinon BJ. Assessing the value of antipsychotics for treating schizophrenia. PharmacoEconomics22, 1–8 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sturm R. The myth of medical cost offset. Psychiatr. Serv.52, 738–740 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Briggs AH, O'Brien B. The death of cost-minimization analysis? Health Econ.10, 179–184 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sendi PP, Briggs AH. Affordability and cost-effectiveness: decision making on the cost-effectiveness plane. Health Econ.10, 675–680 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morton V, Torgerson DJ. Effect of regression to the mean on decision making in health care. Br. Med. J.326, 1083–1084 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice DP. The economic impact of schizophrenia. J. Clin. Psychiatry60(Suppl. 1), 4–6 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knapp M. Costs of schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry171, 509–518 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knapp M, Chisholm D, Leese M, Amaddeo F, Tansella M, Schene A. Comparing pattern and costs of schizophrenia care in five European countries: The EPSILON study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.105, 42–54 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilian R, Matschinger H, Becker T, Angermeyer MC. A longitudinal analysis of the impact of social an clinical characteristics on the costs of schizophrenia treatment. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.107, 351–360 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salize HJ, Rössler W. The cost of comprehensive care of people with schizophrenia living in the community. A cost evaluation from a German catchment area. Br. J. Psychiatry169, 42–48 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haro JM, Salvador-Carulla L, Cabases J, Madoz V, Vázquez-Barquero JL and the PSICOST Group. Utilisation of mental health services and costs of patients with schizophrenia in three areas of spain. Br. J. Psychiatry173, 334–340 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amaddeo F, Beecham J, Bonizzato P, Fenyo A, Tansella M, Knapp M. The cost of community-based psychiatric care for first-ever patients. A case register study. Psychol. Med.28, 173–183 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mauskopf JA, David K, Grainger DL, Gibson PJ. Annual health outcomes and treatment costs for schizophrenia populations. J. Clin. Psychiatry60, 14–19 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarricone R, Gerzeli S, Montanelli R, Frattura L, Percudani M, Racagni G. Direct and indirect costs of schizophrenia in community psychiatric services in Italy. The GISIES study. Health Pol.51, 1–18 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon L, Lyles A, Smith C, Hoch JS, Fahey M, Postrado L. Use and costs of ambulatory care services among medicare enrollees with schizophrenia. Psychiatr. Serv.52(6), 786–792 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Byford S, Barber JA, Fiander M, Marshall S, Green J. Factors that influence the costs of caring for patients with severe psychotic illness. Br. J. Psychiatry178, 441–447 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crown Wh, Neslusan C, Russo PA, Holzer S, Ozminkowski T. Hospitalization and total medical costs for privately insured persons with schizophrenia. Admin. Pol. Ment. Health.28, 335–351 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garattini L, Rossi C, Tediosi F, Cornaggia C, Covelli G, Barbui C. Direct costs of schizophrenia in Italian community psychiatric services. PharmacoEconomics19, 1217–1225 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bartels SJ, Clark RE, Peacockm W J, Dums AR, Pratt SI. Medicare and medicaid costs for schizophrenia patients by age cohort compared with costs for depression, dementia, and medically ill patients. Am. J. Geriatric Psychiatr.11, 648–657 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr VJ, Halpin SA, Homnes S, Lewin TJ. Costs of schizophrenia and other psychosis in urban australia: findings from the low prevalence (psychotic) disorders study. Aust. NZ J. Psychiatry37, 31–40 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Häfner H, an der Heiden W. Effectiveness and cost of community care for schizophrenic patients. Hosp. Commun. Psychiatr.40, 59–63 (1989).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knapp M, Novick D, Genkeer L, Curran CM, McDaid D, on behalf of the SOHO Study Group. Financing health care in Europe: Context for the schizophrenia outpatient health outcomes study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.107(Suppl. 416), 30–40 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Knapp M, Beecham J. Costing mental health services. Psychol. Med.20, 893–908 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothbard AB, Kuno E, Schinnar AP, Hadley TR, Turk R. Service utilization and cost of community care for discharged state hospital patients: a 3-year follow-up study. Am. J. Psychiatry156, 920–927 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosenheck R, Perlick D, Bingham S, Liu-Mares W, Collins J, Warren S. Effectiveness and cost of olanzapine and haloperidol in the treatment of schizophrenia. JAMA290, 2693–2702 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeHert M, Thys E, Boydens J, Gilis P, Kesteloot K, Verhaegen L. Health care expenditure on schizophrenia patients in Belgium. Schizophr. Bull.24, 519–527 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Evers S, Ament A. Costs of schizophrenia in The Netherlands. Schizophr. Bull.21, 141–153 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langley-Hawthorne C. Modeling the lifetime costs of treating schizophrenia in Australia. Clin. Therapeutics19, 1470–1495 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lecomte P, De Hert M, van Dijk M, Nuijten M, Nuyts G, Persson U. A 1-year cost-effectiveness model for the treatment of chronic schizophrenia with acute exacerbations in Belgium. Value Health3, 1–11 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knapp M, Beecham J. Reduced list costings: examniation of an informed short cut in mental health research. Health Econ.2, 313–322 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DeHert M, Thys E, Boydens J, Gilis P, Kesteloot K, Verhaegen L. Health care expenditure on schizophrenia patients in Belgium. Schizophr. Bull.24, 519–527 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bonizzato P, Bisoffi G, Amaddeo F, Chisholm D, Tansella M. Community-based mental health care: to what extent are service costs associated with clinical, social and service history variables? Psychol. Med.30, 1205–1215 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bradley CM, Miller LS. Expenditures for treating schizophrenia: a population-based study of Georgia medicaid rcipients. Schizophr. Bull.24, 479–488 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kilian R, Roick C, Matschinger H, Bernert S, Mory C, Angermeyer MC. Die Analyse von Kostenstrukturen im Bereich der Schizophreniebehandlung mit einem standardisierten Instrumentarium. (The analysis of cost structures of the treatment of schizophrenia by means of standardized assessment instruments). Psychiat. Prax.28(Sonderheft 2), S102–S108 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Chandler D, Hu T-W, Meisel J, McGowen M, Madison K. Mental health costs, other public costs, and family buren among mental health clients in capitated integrated service agencies. J. Mental Health Admin.24, 178–188 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaye JA, Bradbury BD, Jick H. Changes in antipsychotic drug prescribing by general practitioners in the United Kingdom from 1991 to 2000: a population based observational study. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.56, 569–575 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mond J, Morice R, Owen C, Korten A. Use of antipsychotic medications in Australia between July 1995 and December 2001. Aust. NZ J. Psych.37, 55–61 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weissman EM. Antipsychotic prescribing practices in the veterans healthcare administration – New York Metropolitan region. Schizophr. Bull.28, 31–42 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark RE, Bartels SJ, Mellman TA, Peacock WJ. Recent trends in antipsychotic combination therapy of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: implications for state mental health policy. Schizophr. Bull.28, 75–84 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centrorrino F, Eakin M, Kelleher JP, Goren J, Salvatore P, Egli S. Inpatient antipsychotic drug use in 1998, 1993 and 1989. Am. J. Psychiatry159, 1932–1935 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin BC, Miller LS, Kotzan JA. Antipsychotic prescription use and costs for persons with schizophrenia in the 1990s: current trends and five year time series forecasts. Schizophr. Res.47, 281–292 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roick C, Kilian R, Angermeyer MC. Indirect costs of schizophrenia. An investigation of the elements and claculation methods for illness related resources-loss. In: Public Health Research and Practice: Report of the Public Health Research Association Saxony 2000 –2001. Merker N, Göpfert P, Kirch W, Regensburg S (Eds). Roderer Verlag, Germany, 191–210 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Guest JF, Cookson RF. Cost of schizophrenia to UK society. An incidence based cost-of-illness model for the first five years following diagnosis. PharmacoEconomics15, 597–610 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goeree R, O'Brien BJ, Blackhouse G, Agro K, Goering P. The valuation of productivity costs due to premature ortality: a comparison of the human capital and friction-cost methods for schizophrenia. Can. J. Psychiatry44, 455–463 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr VJ, Lewin TJ, Neil AL, Halpin SA, Holmes S. Premorbid, psychosocial and clinical predictors of the costs of schizophrenia and other psychosis. Br. J. Psychiatry184, 517–525 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laugharne R, Byford S, Barber JA, Burns T, Walsh E, Marshall S. The effect of alcohol consumption on cost of care in severe psychotic illness: a report from the UK700 study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.106(3), 241–246 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clouth J, Uber A, Schulenburg JGvd. Kosten der Schizophrenie. Strukturgelichungsmodelle als Instrument der Entscheidugshilfe bei gesundheitsökonomischen Fragestellungen. (Costs of schizophrenia-structural equation models as decision making support tool in health economics). Ges. Ökon Qual. Manag.8, 120–124 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Knapp M, Chisholm D, Astin J, Lelliott P, Audini B. The cost consequences of changing the hospital-community balance: the mental health residential care study. Psychol. Med.27, 681–692 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almond S, Knapp M, Fancois C, Toumi M, Brugha T. Relapse in schizophrenia: costs, clinical outcomes and quality of life. Br. J. Psychiatry184, 346–351 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Percudani M, Barbui C. Cost and outcome implications of using typical and atypical antipsychotics in ordinary prctice in Italy. J. Clin. Psychiatry64, 1293–1299 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knapp M. Making music of the noise – the cost function approach to evaluation. Br. J. Psychiatry173(Suppl. 36), 7–11 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Kilian R, Matschinger H, Löffler W, Roick C, Angermeyer MC. A comparison of methods to handle skew distributed cost variables in the analysis of the resource consumption in schizophrenia treatment. J. Ment. Health Policy Econ.5, 21–31 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Diehr P, Yanez D, Ash A, Hornbrook M, Lin DY. Methods for analyzing health care utilization and costs. Am. Rev. Pub. Health20, 125–144 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn G, Mirandola M, Amaddeo F, Tansella M. Describing, explaining or predicting mental health care costs: a guide to regression models. Methodological review. Br. J. Psychiatry183, 398–404 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan N. Smearing estimate: a nonparametric retransformation method. JASA78(383), 605–610 (1983).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning WG. The logged dependent variable, heteroscedasticity and the retransformation problem. J. Health Econ.17, 283–293 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummond MF, Knapp MRJ, Burns TP, Miller KD, Shadwell P. Issues in the design of studies for the economic evaluation of new atypical antipsychotics: the ESTO study. J. Men. Health Policy Econ.1, 15–22 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lyu RR, McCombs JS, Johnstone BM, Muse DN. Use of conventional antipsychotics and the cost of treating schizophrenia. Health Care Finance Rev.23, 83–99 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foster RH, Goa KL. Risperidone. A pharmaeconomic review of its use in schizophrenia. PharmacoEconomics14, 97–133 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster RH, Goa KL. Olanzapine. A pharmaeconomic review of its use in schizophrenia. PharmacoEconomics15, 611–640 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edgell ET, Andersen SW, Johnstone BM, Dulisse BK, Revicki DA, Breier A. Olanzapine versus risperidone. A prospective comparison of clinical and economic outcomes in schizophrenia. PharmacoEconomics18, 567–579 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essock SM, Frisman LK, Covell NH, Hargreaves WA. Cost-effectiveness of clozapine compared with conventional antipsychotic medication for patients in state hospitals. Arch. Gen. Psych.57, 987–994 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jerrell J. Cost-effectiveness of risperidone, olanzapine, and conventional antipsychotic medications. Schizophr. Bull.28, 589–605 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls CJ, Hale AS, Freemantle N. Cost-effectiveness of amusulpride compared with risperidone in patients with schizophrenia. J. Drug Assess.6, 79–89 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Rosenheck R, Cramer J, Xu W, Thomas J, Henderson W, Frisman L. A comparison of clozapine and haloperidol in hospitalized patients with refractory schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med.337(12), 809 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slade M, Priebe S. Are randomized controlled trials the only gold that glitters? Br. J. Psychiatry179, 286–287 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenheck R, Leslie D, Sernyak M. From clinical trials to real-world practice: use of atypical antipsychotic medication nationally in the department of veterans affairs. Med. Care39, 302–308 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sebastian C, Glazer W, Buckley P. Naturalistic studiesof second generation antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia. Curr. Med. Chem.11(3), 329–342 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revicki DA, Frank L. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation in the real world. Effectiveness versus efficacy studies. PharmacoEconomics15, 423–434 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Aitchison KJ, Kerwin RW. Cost-effectiveness of clozapine. A UK clinic based study. Br. J. Psychiatry171, 125–130 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blieden N, Flinders S, Hawkins K, Reid M, Alphs LD, Arfken CL. Health status and health care costs for publicly funded patients with schizophrenia started on clozapine. Psychiatr. Serv.49, 1590–1593 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bobes J, Gutiérrez M, Gibert J, González HL, Fernández A. Quality of life in schizophrenia: long-term follow-up in 362 chronic Spanish schizophrenic outpatients undergoing risperidone maintenance treatment. Eur. Psychiatr.13, 158–163 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cook PE, Goldberg JO, van Lieshout RJ. Benefits of switching from typical to atypical antipsychotic medications: a longitudinal study in a community based setting. Can. J. Psychiatry47, 870–874 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galvin PM, Knezek LD, Rush AJ, Toprac MG, Johnson B. Clinical and economic impat of newer versus older antipsychotic medications in a community mental health center. Clin. Ther.21, 1105–1116 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghaemi SN, Ziegler DM, Peachey TJ, Goodwin FK. Cost-effectiveness of clozapine therapy for severe psychosis. Psychiatr. Serv.49, 829–831 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hammond CM, Pierson JF, Grande TP, Munetz MR, Wilson DR, Pathak DS. Economic evaluation of risperidone in an outpatient population. Ann. Pharmacother.33, 1160–1166 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hayhurst KP, Brown P, Lewis SW. The cost-effectiveness of clozapine: a controlled, population-based, mirror-image study. J. Psychopharmacol.16, 169–175 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luchins DJ, Hanrahan P, Shinderman M, Lagios L, Fichtner CG. Initiating clozapine treatment in the outpatient clinic: service utilization and cost trends. Psychiatr. Serv.49(8), 1034 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lynch J, Morrison J, Graves N, Meddis D, Drummond MF, Hellewell JSE. The health economic implications of treatment with quetiapine: an audit of long-term treatment for patients with chronic schizophrenia. Eur. Psychiatr.16, 307–312 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lyons C, McDonald P, Maitland JE, Watson JD, King DJ, Mannion MF. Reduction in costs of inpatient stay associated with clozapine treatment. A retrospective study. J. Drug Assess.1, 1–192 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Rastogi SC, Mynors-Wallis LM. Outcome of clozapine treatment for patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia in a local clinical service. Psychiatr. Bull.24, 127–129 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Soholm B, Lublin H. Long-term effectiveness of risperidone and olanzapine in resistant or intolerant schizophrenic patients. A mirror study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.107, 344–350 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Z, Namjoshi M, Barber BL, Loosbrock DL, Tunis SL, Zhu B. Economic outcomes associated with switching individuals with schizophrenia between risperidone and olanzapine. Findings from a large US claim database. CNS Drugs18, 157–164 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seshamani M. Is clozapine cost-effective. Unanswered issues. Eur. J. Health Econ.3, S104–S113 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Revicki DA, Luce BR, Weschler JM, Brown RE, Adler MA. Cost-effectiveness of clozapine for treatment-resistant schizophrenic patients. Hosp. Commun. Psychiatr.41, 850–854 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albright PS, Livingstone S, Keegan DL, Ingham M, Shrikhande S, LeLorier J. Der Einsatz von Risperidon bei schizophrenen Patienten die zuvor mit konventionellen Neuroleptika behandelt wurden reduziert die Inanspruchnahme von Leistungen im Gesundheitswesen. Nervenheilkunde16, 474–482 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Nightengale BS, Crumly JM, Liao J, Lawrence BJ, Jacobs EW. Economic outcomes of antipsychotic agents in a medicaid population: traditional agents vs. risperidone. Psychopharmacol. Bull.34, 373–382 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schiller MJ, Shumway M, Hargreaves WA. Treatment costs and patient outcomes with use of risperidone in a public mental health setting. Psychiatr. Serv.50, 228–232 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coley KC, Carter CS, DaPos SV, Maxwell RA, Wilson JW, Branch RA. Effectiveness of antipsychotic therapy in a naturlisitc setting: a comparison between risperidone, perhenazine, and haloperidol. J. Clin. Psychiatry60, 850–856 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sernyak MJ, Rosenheck R, Desai R, Stolar M, Ripper G. Impact of clozapine prescritpion on inpatient resource utilization. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.189, 766–773 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kasper S, Jones M, Duchesne I, on behalf of the RODOS Investigator Group. Risperidone–olanzapine drug outcomes studies in schizophrenia (RODOS): health economic results of an international naturalistic study. Int. Clin. Psychopharm.16, 189–196 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller MA, Shermock KM, Secic M, Laich JS, Durkin MB. Service use and costs among VA patients with schizophrenia taking risperidone or olanzapine. Psychiatr. Serv.53, 855–860 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gianfrancesco F, Durkin MB, Mahmound R, Wang R-H. Use of healthcare services by patients treated with risperidone versus conventional antipsychotic agents. PharmacoEconomics20, 413–427 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayhurst KP, Brown P, Lewis SW. The cost-effectiveness of clozapine: a controlled, populations-based, mirror immage study. J. Psychopharmacol.16, 169–175 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rascati KL, Johnsrud MT, Crismon ML, Lage MJ, Barber BL. Olanzapine versus risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia. A comparison of costs among Texas medicaid recipients. PharmacoEconomics21, 683–697 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor DM, Wright T, Libretto SE, on behalf of the RODOS Investigator Group. Risperidone compared with olanzapine in a naturalistic clinical study: a cost analysis. J. Clin. Psychiatry64, 589–597 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Byerly MJ, Weber M, Brooks D, Casey SB, Elliot S, Hawkins J. Cost evaluation of risperidone compared with olanzapine. Psychiatr. Serv.54, 742–744 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson PJ, Damler R, Jackson EA, Wilder T, Ramsey JL. The impact of olanzapine, risperidone, or haloperidol on the cost of schizophrenia care in a medicaid population. Value Health7, 22–34 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crown WH, Obenchain RL, Englehart L, Lair T, Buesching DP, Croghan T. The application of sample selection models to outcomes research: the case of evaluating the effects of antidepressant therapy on resource utilization. Stat. Med.17, 1943–1958 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Longford NT. Selection bias and treatment heterogeneity in clinical trials. Stat. Med.18, 1467–1474 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis M, McCrone P, Frangou S. Service use and costs of treating schizophrenia with atypical antipsychotics. J. Clin. Psychiatry62, 749–756 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kilian R, Dietrich S, Toumi M, Angermeyer MC. The effects of first generation and second generation antipsychotics on the quality of life of people with schizophrenia in routine outpatient treatment. Acta. Psychiatr. Scand.110, 108–118 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ascher-Svanum H, Zhu B, Faries D, Ernst FR. A comparison of olanzapine and risperidone on the risk of psychiatric hospitalization in the naturalistic treatment of patients with schizophrenia. Ann. Gen. Hospital Psych.3, 1–11 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Almond S, O'Donnell O. Cost analysis of the threatment of schizophrenia in the UK. A comparison of olanzapine and haloperidol. PharmacoEconomics13, 575–588 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Byrom BD, Garratt CJ, Kilpatrick AT. Influence of antipsychotic profile on cost of treatment of schizophrenia: a decision analysis approach. Int. J. Psychiatr. Clin. Practice2, 129–138 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davies A, Langly PC, Keks NA, Catts SV, Lambert T, Schweitzer I. Risperidone versus haloperidol: II. Cost-effectiveness. Clin. Ther.20, 196–212 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deckert C, Höffler J, Kortmann J, Linden M, Roth G-D, Struck M. Kostenanalyse der schizophrenie-behandlung in Deutschland. Vergleich von olanzapine, risperidone und haloperidol mit hilfe eines klinischen entscheidungsmodells. Ges. Ökon. Qual. Manag.6, 161–166 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Ganguly R, Miller LS, Martin BC. Future employability, a new approach to cost-effectiveness analysis of antipsychotic therapy. Schizophr. Res.63, 111–119 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glazer WG, Ereshefsky L. A pharmaeconomic model of outpatient antipsychotic therapy in revolving door schizophrenic patients. J. Clin. Psychiatry57, 337–345 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glennie JL. Pharmaeconomic evaluations of clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenia and risperidone in chronic schizophrenia. Canadian Coordinating Office for Health Technology Assessment (CCOHTA). Technology overview: pharmaceuticals, Ottawa, Canada (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Launois R, Graf von der Schulenburg M, Knapp M, Toumi M. Cost-effectiveness of sertindole versus olanzapine or haloperidol: a comprehensive model. Int. J. Psychiatr. Clin. Prac.2(Suppl. 2), S79–S86 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mortimer A, Williams P, Meddis D. Impact of side-effects of atypical antipsychotics on non-compliance, relapse and cost. J. Int. Med. Res.31, 188–196 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh PI, Iskedjian M, Addis A, Lanctòt K, Einarson TR. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation of clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a cost utility analysis. Can. J. Clin. Pharmacol.8, 199–206 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oh PI, Lanctòt K, Mittmann N, Iskedjian M, Einarson TR. Cost-utility of rsiperidone compared with standard conventional antipsychotics in chronic schizophrenia. J. Drug Assess.5, 39–58 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Palmer CS, Brunner E, Ruiz-Flores LG, Paez-Agraz F, Revicki DA. A cost-effectiveness clinical decision analysis model for treatment of schizophrenia. Arch. Med. Res.33, 572–580 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilden D, Aristides M, Meddis D, Burns T. An economic assessment of quetiapine and haloperidol in patients with schizophrenia only partially responsive to conventional antipsychotics. Clin. Ther.24(10), 1648–1667 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginsberg G, Shani S, Lev B. Cost-benefit analyis of risperidone and clozapine in the treatment of schizophrenia in Israel. PharmacoEconomics13, 231–241 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenheck R, Cramer J, Allan E et al. Cost-effectiveness of clozapine in patients with high and low levels of hospital use. Arch. Gen. Psych.56, 565–572 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton SH, Revicki DA, Edgell ET, Genduso LA. Clinical and economic outcomes of olanzapine compared with haloperidol for schizophrenia. Results from a randomized clinical trial. PharmacoEconomics15, 469–480 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Agostino RB. Tutorial in biostatistics. Propensity score methods for bias reduction in the comparison of a treatment to a non-randomized control group. Stat. Med.17, 2265–2281 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilian R, Angermeyer MC. Der Einfluss der Neuroleptikabehandlung auf die Inzidenz und die Kosten stationärer psychiatrischer Behandlungen Schizophren Erkrankten: Ergebnisse einer prospektiven Beobachtungsstudie. (The impact of antipsychotic medication on the incidence and the costs of inpatient treatment in people with schizophrenia: Results from a prospective observational study). Psychiat. Prax.31, 1–9 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davies L, Lewis S. Antipsychotic medication for people with first episode schizophrenia: an explorative economic analysis of alternative treatment algorithms. Discussion Paper 178. Centre for Health Economics, The University of York, York, UK (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Tilden D, Aristides M, Meddis D, Burns T. An economic assessment of quetiapine and haloperidol in patients with schizophrenia only partially responsive to conventional antipsychotics. Clin. Ther.24, 1648–1667 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Marcotte DE, Wilcox-Gök V. Estimatin the employment and earnings costs of mental illness: recent developments in the United States. Soc. Sci. Med.53, 21–27 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoch JS, Briggs AH, Willan R. Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue: a framework for the marriage of health econometrics and cost-effectiveness analysis. Health Economics11, 415–430 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tunis SL, Johnstone BM, Gibson PJ, Loosbrock DL, Dulisse BK. Changes in perceived health and fuctioning as a cost-effectiveness measure for olanzapine versus haloperidol treatment in schizophrenia. J. Clin. Psychiatry60, 38–46 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Obenchain RL, Johnstone BM. Mixed-model imputations of cost data for early discontinuers from a randomized clinical trial. Drug Information J.33, 191–209 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenheck R, Cramer J, Xu W et al. Multiple outcome assessment in a study of the cost-effectiveness of clozapine in the treatment of refractory schizophrenia. Health Serv. Res.33, 1237–1261 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilian R, Angermeyer MC, Becker T. Methodische Grundlagen naturalistischer Beobachtungsstudien zur ökonomischen Evaluation der Neuroleptikabehandlung bei schizophrenen Erkrankungen. (Methodological issues of naturalistic observational studies on the economic Evaluation of schizophrenia drug treatment). Gesundheitswesen66(3), 180–185 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Kasper S, Rosillon D, Duchese I, RODOS investigator Group. Risperidone olanzapine drug outcomes studies in schizophrenia (RODOS): efficacy and tolerability results of an international naturalistic study. Int. Clin. Psychopharm.16, 179–187 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almond S, O’Donnell O. Cost analysis of the treatment of schizophrenia in the UK. PharmacoEconomics17, 383–389 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar