Advanced search
Publication Cover
Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics Volume 13, 2013 - Issue 11
Submit an article Journal homepage
1,129
Views
58
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Theme: Pain - Reviews

Chronic pain treatment with opioid analgesics: benefits versus harms of long-term therapy

Nalini SehgalDepartment of Orthopedics & Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine & Public Health, 1685 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705-2281, USACorrespondence[email protected]
,
James ColsonW. Virginia Univ. Hospitals, 1 Medical Center Drive, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
&
Howard S SmithDepartment of Anesthesiology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue; MC-135, Albany, NY 12608, USA
Pages 1201-1220 | Published online: 09 Jan 2014

References

  • Classification of chronic pain. Descriptions of chronic pain syndromes and definitions of pain terms. Prepared by the International Association for the Study of Pain, Subcommittee on Taxonomy. Pain Suppl. 3, S1–S226 (1986).
  • Tsang A, Von Korff M, Lee S et al. Common chronic pain conditions in developed and developing countries: gender and age differences and comorbidity with depression-anxiety disorders. J. Pain 9(10), 883–891 (2008).
  • Schopflocher DP, Taenzer, Jovey R. The prevalence of chronic pain in Canada. Pain Res. Manag. 16(6), 445–450 (2011).
  • Azevedo LF, Costa-Pereira A, Mendonça L et al. Epidemiology of chronic pain: a population-based nationwide study on its prevalence, characteristics and associated disability in Portugal. J. Pain 13(8), 773–783 (2012).
  • Breivik H, Collett B, Ventafridda V, Cohen R, Gallacher D. Survey of chronic pain in Europe: prevalence, impact on daily life, and treatment. Eur. J. Pain 10(4), 287–333 (2006).
  • Eriksen J, Jensen MK, Sjøgren P, Ekholm O, Rasmussen NK. Epidemiology of chronic non-malignant pain in Denmark. Pain 106(3), 221–228 (2003).
  • Neville A, Peleg R, Singer Y, Sherf M, Shvartzman P. Chronic pain: a population-based study. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 10(10), 676–680 (2008).
  • Ng KF, Tsui SL, Chan WS. Prevalence of common chronic pain in Hong Kong adults. Clin. J. Pain. 18(5), 275–281 (2002).
  • Smith BH, Elliott AM, Chambers WA, Smith WC, Hannaford PC, Penny K. The impact of chronic pain in the community. Fam Pract. 18(3), 292–299 (2001).
  • Elliott AM, Smith BH, Hannaford PC, Smith WC, Chambers WA. The course of chronic pain in the community: results of a 4-year follow-up study. Pain 99(1–2), 299–307 (2002).
  • McCarberg BH, Nicholson BD, Todd KH, Palmer T, Penles L. The impact of pain on quality of life and the unmet needs of pain management: results from pain sufferers and physicians participating in an Internet survey. Am. J. Ther. 15(4), 312–320 (2008).
  • Turk DC, Dworkin RH, Revicki D et al. Identifying important outcome domains for chronic pain clinical trials: an IMMPACT survey of people with pain. Pain 137(2), 276–285 (2008).
  • Pizzo PA, Clark NM. Alleviating suffering 101--pain relief in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 366(3), 197–199 (2012).
  • Muller-Schwefe GH. European survey of chronic pain patients: results for Germany. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 27(11), 2099–2106 (2011).
  • Franklin GM, Mai J, Wickizer T, Turner JA, Fulton-Kehoe D, Grant L. Opioid dosing trends and mortality in Washington State workers’ compensation. 1996-2002. Am. J. Ind. Med. 48(2), 91–99 (2005).
  • Manchikanti L, Helm S 2nd, Fellows B et al. Opioid epidemic in the United States. Pain Physician 15(3 Suppl.), ES9–E38(2012).
  • Boudreau D, Von Korff M, Rutter CM et al. Trends in long-term opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 18(12), 1166–1175 (2009).
  • Joranson DE, Ryan KM, Gilson AM, Dahl JL. Trends in medical use and abuse of opioid analgesics. JAMA 283(13), 1710–1714 (2000).
  • Gilson AM, Ryan KM, Joranson DE, Dahl JL. A reassessment of trends in the medical use and abuse of opioid analgesics and implications for diversion control: 1997-2002. J. Pain Symptom. Manag. 28(2), 176–188 (2004).
  • Wilhelmi BG, Cohen SP. A framework for “driving under the influence of drugs” policy for the opioid using driver. Pain Physician 15(3 Suppl.), ES215–ES230(2012).
  • Edlund MJ, Martin BC, Devries A, Fan MY, Braden JB, Sullivan MD. Trends in use of opioids for chronic noncancer pain among individuals with mental health and substance use disorders: the TROUP study. Clin. J. Pain 26(1), 1–8 (2010).
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). CDC grand rounds: prescription drug overdoses - a U.S. epidemic. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly Rep. 61(1), 10–13 (2012).
  • Bernacki EJ, Yuspeh L, Lavin R, Tao XG. Increases in the use and cost of opioids to treat acute and chronic pain in injured workers, 1999 to 2009. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 54(2), 216–223 (2012).
  • Dembe A, Wickizer T, Sieck C, Partridge J, Balchick R. Opioid use and dosing in the workers’ compensation setting. A comparative review and new data from Ohio. Am. J. Ind. Med. 55(4), 313–324 (2012).
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 1999--2008. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep. 60(43), 1487–1492 (2011).
  • Gomes T, Juurlink DN, Dhalla IA, Mailis-Gagnon A, Paterson JM, Mamdani MM. Trends in opioid use and dosing among socio-economically disadvantaged patients. Open Med. 5(1), e13–22 (2011).
  • Caraceni AT, Brunelli C, Rocco P, Minghetti P. Trends in opioid analgesics sales to community pharmacies and hospitals in Italy (2000-2010). Minerva Anestesiol. 79(8), 906–914 (2013).
  • Gilson AM, Maurer MA, Ryan KM, Rathouz PJ, Cleary JF. Using a morphine equivalence metric to quantify opioid consumption: examining the capacity to provide effective treatment of debilitating pain at the global, regional, and country levels. J. Pain Symptom. Manag. 45(4), 681–700 (2013).
  • McCarberg B, Hahn KL, Twillman RK, Hodgkiss-Harlow CJ. A role for opioids in chronic pain management. Arch. Intern. Med. 172(10), 824, author reply 824–825 (2012).
  • McCarberg BH, Barkin RL. Long-acting opioids for chronic pain: pharmacotherapeutic opportunities to enhance compliance, quality of life, and analgesia. Am. J. Ther. 8(3), 181–186, (2001).
  • Portenoy RK, Farrar JT, Backonja MM et al. Long-term use of controlled-release oxycodone for noncancer pain: results of a 3-year registry study. Clin. J. Pain 23(4), 287–299 (2007).
  • Martell BA, O'Connor PG, Kerns RD et al. Systematic review: opioid treatment for chronic back pain: prevalence, efficacy, and association with addiction. Ann. Intern. Med. 146(2), 116–127 (2007).
  • Jamison RN, Raymond SA, Slawsby EA, Nedeljkovic SS, Katz NP. Opioid therapy for chronic noncancer back pain. A randomized prospective study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 23(23), 2591–2600 (1998).
  • Vorsanger GJ, Xiang J, Gana TJ, Pascual ML, Fleming RR. Extended-release tramadol (tramadol ER) in the treatment of chronic low back pain. J. Opioid. Manag. 4(2), 87–97 (2008).
  • Afilalo M, Etropolski MS, Kuperwasser B et al. Efficacy and safety of Tapentadol extended release compared with oxycodone controlled release for the management of moderate to severe chronic pain related to osteoarthritis of the knee: a randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled phase III study. Clin. Drug Investig. 30(8), 489–505 (2010).
  • Schwartz S, Etropolski M, Shapiro DY et al. Safety and efficacy of tapentadol ER in patients with painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: results of a randomized-withdrawal, placebo-controlled trial. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 27(1), 151–162 (2011).
  • DeLemos BP, Xiang J, Benson C et al. Tramadol hydrochloride extended-release once-daily in the treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee and/or hip: a double-blind, randomized, dose-ranging trial. Am. J. Ther. 18(3), 216–226 (2011).
  • Adams EH, Chwiecko P, Ace-Wagoner Y et al. A study of AVINZA (morphine sulfate extended-release capsules) for chronic moderate-to-severe noncancer pain conducted under real-world treatment conditions--the ACCPT Study. Pain Pract. 6(4), 254–264 (2006).
  • Rauck R, Ma T, Kerwin R, Ahdieh H. Titration with oxymorphone extended release to achieve effective long-term pain relief and improve tolerability in opioid-naive patients with moderate to severe pain. Pain Med 9(7), 777–785 (2008).
  • Roth SH, Fleischmann RM, Burch FX et al. Around-the-clock, controlled-release oxycodone therapy for osteoarthritis-related pain: placebo-controlled trial and long-term evaluation. Arch. Intern. Med. 160(6), 853–860 (2000).
  • Wild JE, Grond S, Kuperwasser B et al. Long-term safety and tolerability of tapentadol extended release for the management of chronic low back pain or osteoarthritis pain. Pain Pract. 10(5), 416–427 (2010).
  • Wallace M, Moulin DE, Rauck RL et al. Long-term safety, tolerability, and efficacy of OROS hydromorphone in patients with chronic pain. J. Opioid. Manag. 5(2), 97–105 (2009).
  • Richarz U, Waechter S, Sabatowski R, Szczepanski L, Binsfeld H. Sustained safety and efficacy of once-daily hydromorphone extended-release (OROS(R) hydromorphone ER) compared with twice-daily oxycodone controlled-release over 52 weeks in patients with moderate to severe chronic noncancer pain. Pain Pract 13(1), 30–40 (2013).
  • Karlsson M, Berggren AC. Efficacy and safety of low-dose transdermal buprenorphine patches (5, 10, and 20 microg/h) versus prolonged-release tramadol tablets (75, 100, 150, and 200 mg) in patients with chronic osteoarthritis pain: a 12-week, randomized, open-label, controlled, parallel-group noninferiority study. Clin. Ther. 31(3), 503–513 (2009).
  • Agarwal S, Polydefkis M, Block B, Haythornthwaite J, Raja SN. Transdermal fentanyl reduces pain and improves functional activity in neuropathic pain states. Pain Med. 8(7), 554–562 (2007).
  • Noble M, Treadwell JR, Tregear SJ et al. Long-term opioid management for chronic noncancer pain. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (1), CD006605 (2010).
  • Deshpande A, Furlan A, Mailis-Gagnon A, Atlas S, Turk D. Opioids for chronic low-back pain. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (3), CD004959 (2007).
  • Nuesch E, Rutjes AW, Husni E, Welch V, Juni P. Oral or transdermal opioids for osteoarthritis of the knee or hip. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (4), CD003115 (2009).
  • Whittle SL, Richards BL, Husni E, Buchbinder R. Opioid therapy for treating rheumatoid arthritis pain. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (11), CD003113 (2011).
  • Eisenberg E, McNicol E, Carr DB. Opioids for neuropathic pain. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (3), CD006146 (2006).
  • Furlan A, Chaparro LE, Irvin E, Mailis-Gagnon A. A comparison between enriched and nonenriched enrollment randomized withdrawal trials of opioids for chronic noncancer pain. Pain. Res. Manag. 16(5), 337–351 (2011).
  • Papaleontiou M, Henderson CRJr, Turner BJ et al. Outcomes associated with opioid use in the treatment of chronic noncancer pain in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 58(7), 1353–1369 (2010).
  • White AP, Arnold PM, Norvell DC, Ecker E, Fehlings MG. Pharmacologic management of chronic low back pain: synthesis of the evidence. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 36(21 Suppl.), S131–S143 (2011).
  • Babul N, Noveck R, Chipman H, Roth SH, Gana T, Albert K. Efficacy and safety of extended-release, once-daily tramadol in chronic pain: a randomized 12-week clinical trial in osteoarthritis of the knee. J. Pain Symptom Manage. 28(1), 59–71 (2004).
  • Allan L, Richarz U, Simpson K, Slappendel R. Transdermal fentanyl versus sustained release oral morphine in strong-opioid naive patients with chronic low back pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 30(22), 2484–2490 (2005).
  • Katz N, Rauck R, Ahdieh H et al. A 12-week, randomized, placebo-controlled trial assessing the safety and efficacy of oxymorphone extended release for opioid-naive patients with chronic low back pain. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 23(1), 117–128, (2007).
  • Burch F, Fishman R, Messina N et al. A comparison of the analgesic efficacy of Tramadol Contramid OAD versus placebo in patients with pain due to osteoarthritis. J. Pain Symptom. Manag. 34(3), 328–338 (2007).
  • Hale ME, Ahdieh H, Ma T, Rauck R; Oxymorphone ER Study Group 1. Efficacy and safety of OPANA ER (oxymorphone extended release) for relief of moderate to severe chronic low back pain in opioid-experienced patients: a 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Pain 8(2), 175–184 (2007).
  • Vondrackova D, Leyendecker P, Meissner W et al. Analgesic efficacy and safety of oxycodone in combination with naloxone as prolonged release tablets in patients with moderate to severe chronic pain. J. Pain 9(12), 1144–1154 (2008).
  • Friedmann N, Klutzaritz V, Webster L. Long-term safety of Remoxy(R) (extended-release oxycodone) in patients with moderate to severe chronic osteoarthritis or low back pain. Pain Med. 2, 755–760 (2011).
  • Kalso E, Edwards JE, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Opioids in chronic non-cancer pain: systematic review of efficacy and safety. Pain 112(3), 372–380 (2004).
  • McIlwain H, Ahdieh H. H Safety, tolerability, and effectiveness of oxymorphone extended release for moderate to severe osteoarthritis pain: a one-year study. Am. J. Ther. 12(2), 106–112 (2005).
  • Furlan AD, Sandoval JA, Mailis-Gagnon A, Tunks E. Opioids for chronic noncancer pain: a meta-analysis of effectiveness and side effects. CMAJ 174(11), 1589–1594 (2006).
  • Ballantyne JC, Shin NS. Efficacy of opioids for chronic pain: a review of the evidence. Clin. J. Pain. 224(6), 469–478 (2008).
  • Zenz M, Strumpf M, Tryba M. Long-term oral opioid therapy in patients with chronic nonmalignant pain. J. Pain Symptom. Manag. 7(2), 69–77 (1992).
  • Markenson JA, Croft J, Zhang PG, Richards P. Treatment of persistent pain associated with osteoarthritis with controlled-release oxycodone tablets in a randomized controlled clinical trial. Clin. J. Pain. 21(6), 524–535 (2005).
  • Fillingim RB, Doleys DM, Edwards RR, Lowery D. Clinical characteristics of chronic back pain as a function of gender and oral opioid use. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 28(2), 143–150 (2003).
  • Jensen MK, Thomsen AB, Hojsted J. 10-year follow-up of chronic non-malignant pain patients: opioid use, health related quality of life and health care utilization. Eur. J. Pain 10(5), 423–433 (2006).
  • Cepeda MS, Camargo F, Zea C, Valencia L. Tramadol for osteoarthritis: a systematic review and metaanalysis. J. Rheumatol. 34(3), 543–555, (2007).
  • Dillie KS, Fleming MF, Mundt MP, French MT. Quality of life associated with daily opioid therapy in a primary care chronic pain sample. J. Am. Board Fam. Med. 21(2), 108–17 (2008).
  • Eriksen J, Sjogren P, Bruera E, Ekholm O, Rasmussen NK. Critical issues on opioids in chronic non-cancer pain: an epidemiological study. Pain 125(1–2), 172–179 (2006).
  • Landro NI, Fors EA, Vspenstad LL, Holthe O, Stiles TC, Borchgrevink PC. The extent of neurocognitive dysfunction in a multidisciplinary pain centre population. Is there a relation between reported and tested neuropsychological functioning? Pain 154(7), 972–977 (2013).
  • Moriarty O, McGuire BE, Finn DP. The effect of pain on cognitive function: a review of clinical and preclinical research. Prog. Neurobiol 93(3), 385–404 (2011).
  • Berryman C, Stanton TR, Jane Bowering K, Tabor A, McFarlane A, Lorimer Moseley G. Evidence for working memory deficits in chronic pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain 154(8), 1181–1196 (2013).
  • Brown RT, Zuelsdorff M, Fleming M. Adverse effects and cognitive function among primary care patients taking opioids for chronic nonmalignant pain. J. Opioid. Manag. 2(3), 137–146 (2006).
  • Kurita GP, de Mattos Pimenta CA, Braga PE, Frich L, Jørgensen MM, Nielsen PR, Højsted J, Sjøgren P. Cognitive function in patients with chronic pain treated with opioids: characteristics and associated factors. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 56(10), 1257-1266 (2012).
  • Larsen B, Otto H, Dorscheid E, Larsen R. Effects of long-term opioid therapy on psychomotor function in patients with cancer pain or non-malignant pain. Anaesthesist 48(9), 613–624 (1999).
  • Sjogren P, Christrup LL, Petersen MA, Hojsted J. Neuropsychological assessment of chronic non-malignant pain patients treated in a multidisciplinary pain centre. Eur. J. Pain 9(4), 453–462 (2005).
  • Smith H, Bruckenthal P. Implications of opioid analgesia for medically complicated patients. Drugs Aging 27(5), 417–433 (2010).
  • Soyka M, Lieb M, Kagerer S et al. Cognitive functioning during methadone and buprenorphine treatment: results of a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 28(6), 699-703 (2008).
  • Jamison RN, Schein JR, Vallow S, Ascher S, Vorsanger GJ, Katz NP. Neuropsychological effects of long-term opioid use in chronic pain patients. J. Pain Symptom. Manag. 26(4), 913–921 (2003).
  • Panjabi SS, Panjabi RS, Shepherd MD, Lawson KA, Johnsrud M, Barner J. Extended-release, once-daily morphine (Avinza) for the treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain: effect on pain, depressive symptoms, and cognition. Pain Med. 9(8), 985–993 (2008).
  • Strand MC, Fjeld B, Arnestad M, Mørland J. Can patients receiving opioid maintenance therapy safely drive? A systematic review of epidemiological and experimental studies on driving ability with a focus on concomitant methadone or buprenorphine administration. Traffic Inj Prev. 14(1), 26–38 (2013).
  • Mintzer MZ, Stitzer ML. Cognitive impairment in methadone maintenance patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 67(1), 41–51 (2002).
  • Baldacchino A, Balfour DJ, Passetti F, Humphris G, Matthews K. Neuropsychological consequences of chronic opioid use: a quantitative review and meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36(9), 2056–2068 (2012).
  • Bach P, Vollstädt-Klein S, Frischknecht U, Hoerst M, Kiefer F, Mann K, Ende G, Hermann D. Diminished brain functional magnetic resonance imaging activation in patients on opiate maintenance despite normal spatial working memory task in performance. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 35(4), 153–160 (2012).
  • Marvel CL, Faulkner ML, Strain EC, Mintzer MZ, Desmond JE. An fMRI investigation of cerebellar function during verbal working memory in methadone maintenance patients. Cerebellum.11(1), 300–310 (2012).
  • Alexandersen A, Dalen K, Bronnick K. Prediction of driving ability after inconclusive neuropsychological investigation. Brain Inj. 23(4), 313–321 (2009).
  • Fishbain DA, Cutler RB, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. Are opioid-dependent/tolerant patients impaired in driving-related skills? A structured evidence-based review. J. Pain Symptom. Manag. 25(6), 559–577 (2003).
  • Mailis-Gagnon A, Lakha SF, Furlan A, Nicholson K, Yegneswaran B, Sabatowski R. Systematic review of the quality and generalizability of studies on the effects of opioids on driving and cognitive/psychomotor performance. Clin. J. Pain 28(6), 542–555 (2012).
  • Bruera E, Macmillan K, Hanson J, MacDonald RN. The cognitive effects of the administration of narcotic analgesics in patients with cancer pain. Pain 39(1), 13–16 (1989).
  • Manchikanti L, Manchikanti KN, Pampati V, Cash KA. Prevalence of side effects of prolonged low or moderate dose opioid therapy with concomitant benzodiazepine and/or antidepressant therapy in chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician 12(1), 259–267 (2009).
  • Martin BC, Fan MY, Edlund MJ, Devries A, Braden JB, Sullivan MD. Long-term chronic opioid therapy discontinuation rates from the TROUP study. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 26(12), 1450–1457 (2011).
  • Pergolizzi J, Boger RH, Budd K et al. Opioids and the management of chronic severe pain in the elderly: consensus statement of an International Expert Panel with focus on the six clinically most often used World Health Organization Step III opioids (buprenorphine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, methadone, morphine, oxycodone). Pain Pract. 8(4), 287–313 (2008).
  • Benyamin R, Trescot AM, Datta S et al. Opioid complications and side effects. Pain Physician 11(2 Suppl.), S105–S120 (2008).
  • Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Prevalence of opioid adverse events in chronic non-malignant pain: systematic review of randomised trials of oral opioids. Arthritis Res. Ther. 7(5), 28 (2005).
  • Eisenberg E, McNicol ED, Carr DB. Efficacy and safety of opioid agonists in the treatment of neuropathic pain of nonmalignant origin: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 293(24), 3043–3052 (2005).
  • Abs R, Verhelst J, Maeyaert J et al. Endocrine consequences of long-term intrathecal administration of opioids. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85(6), 2215–2222 (2000).
  • Roberts LJ, Finch PM, Pullan PT, Bhagat CI, Price LM. Sex hormone suppression by intrathecal opioids: a prospective study. Clin. J. Pain 18(3), 144–148 (2002).
  • Rajagopal A, Vassilopoulou-Sellin R, Palmer JL, Kaur G, Bruera E. Hypogonadism and sexual dysfunction in male cancer survivors receiving chronic opioid therapy. J. Pain Symptom. Manag. 26(5), 1055–1061 (2003).
  • Rajagopal A, Bruera ED. Improvement in sexual function after reduction of chronic high-dose opioid medication in a cancer survivor. Pain Med. 4(4), 379–383 (2003).
  • Daniell HW. Opioid-induced androgen deficiency discussion in opioid contracts. Am. J. Med. 120(9), e21 (2007).
  • Finch PM, Roberts LJ, Price L, Hadlow NC, Pullan PT. Hypogonadism in patients treated with intrathecal morphine. Clin. J. Pain. 16(3), 251–254 (2000).
  • Daniell HW. Hypogonadism in men consuming sustained-action oral opioids. J. Pain 3(5), 377–384 (2002).
  • Daniell HW, Lentz R, Mazer NA. Open-label pilot study of testosterone patch therapy in men with opioid-induced androgen deficiency. J. Pain 27(3), 200–210 (2006).
  • Daniell HW, Dunn SR, Ferguson DW, Lomas G, Niazi Z, Stratte PT. Progressive osteoporosis during androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. J. Urol. 163(1), 181-186 (2000).
  • Daniell HW. Osteoporosis due to androgen deprivation therapy in men with prostate cancer. Urology 58(2 Suppl. 1), 101–107 (2001).
  • Saunders KW, Dunn KM, Merrill JO et al. Relationship of opioid use and dosage levels to fractures in older chronic pain patients. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 25(4), 310–315 (2010).
  • Daniell HW. Erythropoietin resistance during androgen deficiency. Arch. Intern. Med. 166(17), 1923, author reply 1923–1924 (2006).
  • Brennan MJ. The effect of opioid therapy on endocrine function. Am. J. Med. 126(3 Suppl. 1), S12-S18 (2013).
  • Hall AJ, Logan JE, Toblin RL et al. Patterns of abuse among unintentional pharmaceutical overdose fatalities. JAMA 300(22), 2613–2620 (2008).
  • Paulozzi LJ, Budnitz DS, Xi Y. Increasing deaths from opioid analgesics in the United States. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 15(9), 618–627 (2006).
  • Bohnert AS, Valenstein M, Bair MJ et al. Association between opioid prescribing patterns and opioid overdose-related deaths. JAMA 305(33), 1315–1321 (2011).
  • Dunn KM, Saunders KW, Rutter CM et al. Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: a cohort study. Ann. Intern. Med. 152(2), 85–92 (2010).
  • Paulozzi LJ, Kilbourne EM, Shah NG et al. A history of being prescribed controlled substances and risk of drug overdose death. Pain Med 13(1), 87–95 (2012).
  • Gomes T, Mamdani MM, Dhalla IA, Paterson JM, Juurlink DN. Opioid dose and drug-related mortality in patients with nonmalignant pain. Arch Intern Med. 171(7), 686–691 (2011).
  • Macintyre PE, Loadsman JA, Scott DA. Opioids ventilation and acute pain management. Anaesth. Intensive Care 39(4), 545–558 (2011).
  • Webster LR, Cochella S, Dasgupta N et al. An analysis of the root causes for opioid-related overdose deaths in the United States. Pain Med. 12 (Suppl. 2), S26–S35 (2011).
  • Walker JM, Farney RJ, Rhondeau SM et al. Chronic opioid use is a risk factor for the development of central sleep apnea and ataxic breathing. J. Clin. Sleep Med. 3(5), 455–461 (2007).
  • Chugh SS, Socoteanu C, Reinier K, Waltz J, Jui J, Gunson K. A community-based evaluation of sudden death associated with therapeutic levels of methadone. Am. J. Med. 121(1), 66–71 (2008).
  • Krantz MJ, Martin J, Stimmel B, Mehta D, Haigney MC. QTc interval screening in methadone treatment. Ann. Intern. Med. 150(6), 387–395 (2009).
  • American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society and the American Society of Addition Medicine. Definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain. WMJ 100(5), 28–29 (2001).
  • Katz NP, Adams EH, Chilcoat H et al. Challenges in the development of prescription opioid abuse-deterrent formulations. Clin. J. Pain. 23(8), 648–660 (2007).
  • Boscarino JA, Rukstalis M, Hoffman SN et al. Risk factors for drug dependence among out-patients on opioid therapy in a large US health-care system. Addiction 105(10), 1776–1782 (2010).
  • Edlund MJ, Martin BC, Fan MY, Devries A, Braden JB, Sullivan MD. Risks for opioid abuse and dependence among recipients of chronic opioid therapy: results from the TROUP study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 112(1–2), 90–98 (2010).
  • Sullivan MD, Edlund MJ, Fan MY, Devries A, Brennan Braden J, Martin BC. Risks for possible and probable opioid misuse among recipients of chronic opioid therapy in commercial and medicaid insurance plans: The TROUP Study. Pain 50(2), 332–339 (2010).
  • Naliboff BD, Wu SM, Schieffer B et al. A randomized trial of 2 prescription strategies for opioid treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain. J. Pain 12(2), 288–296 (2011).
  • Fleming MF, Balousek SL, Klessig CL, Mundt MP, Brown DD. Substance use disorders in a primary care sample receiving daily opioid therapy. J Pain. 8(7), 573-82 2007.
  • Denisco RA, Chandler RK, Compton WM. Addressing the intersecting problems of opioid misuse and chronic pain treatment. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 16(5), 417–428 (2008).
  • Strassels SA. Economic burden of prescription opioid misuse and abuse. J. Manag. Care Pharm. 15(7), 556–562 (2009).
  • Ruetsch C. Empirical view of opioid dependence. J. Manag. Care Pharm. 16(1 Suppl. B), S9–S13 (2010).
  • Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Paradis A, Ortbal Z. Determinants of fentanyl and other potent micro opioid agonist misuse in opioid-dependent individuals. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 19(10), 1057–1063 (2010).
  • Liebschutz JM, Saitz R, Weiss RD et al. Clinical factors associated with prescription drug use disorder in urban primary care patients with chronic pain. J. Pain 11(11), 1047–1055 (2010).
  • Becker WC, Sullivan LE, Tetrault JM, Desai RA, Fiellin DA. Non-medical use, abuse and dependence on prescription opioids among U.S. adults: psychiatric, medical and substance use correlates. Drug Alcohol Depend. 94(1–3), 38–47 (2008.).
  • Tetrault JM, Desai RA, Becker WC, Fiellin DA, Concato J, Sullivan LE. Gender and non-medical use of prescription opioids: results from a national US survey. Addiction 103(2), 258–268 (2008).
  • Edlund MJ, Sullivan M, Steffick D, Harris KM, Wells KB. Do users of regularly prescribed opioids have higher rates of substance use problems than nonusers? Pain Med. 8(8), 647–656 (2007).
  • Sehgal N, Manchikanti L, Smith HS. Prescription opioid abuse in chronic pain: a review of opioid abuse predictors and strategies to curb opioid abuse. Pain Physician. 15(3 Suppl.), ES67–ES92 (2012).
  • Cochella S, Bateman K. Provider detailing: an intervention to decrease prescription opioid deaths in Utah. Pain Med 12(2), 1526–4637 (2011).
  • Franklin GM, Mai J, Turner J, Sullivan M, Wickizer T, Fulton-Kehoe D. Bending the prescription opioid dosing and mortality curves: impact of the Washington State opioid dosing guideline. Am. J. Ind. Med. 55(4), 325–31 (2012).
  • Chapman CR, Lipschitz DL, Angst MS et al. Opioid pharmacotherapy for chronic non-cancer pain in the United States: a research guideline for developing an evidence-base. J. Pain 11(9), 807–829 (2010).
  • Gana TJ, Pascual ML, Fleming RR et al.; 023 Study Group. Extended-release tramadol in the treatment of osteoarthritis: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 22(7), 1391–1401 (2006).
  • Hanna M, O'Brien C, Wilson MC. Prolonged-release oxycodone enhances the effects of existing gabapentin therapy in painful diabetic neuropathy patients. Eur. J. Pain 12(6), 804–813 (2008).
  • Buynak R, Shapiro DY, Okamoto A et al. Efficacy and safety of tapentadol extended release for the management of chronic low back pain: results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled Phase III study. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 11(11), 1787–1804 (2010).
  • Sandoval JA, Furlan AD, Mailis-Gagnon A. Oral methadone for chronic noncancer pain: a systematic literature review of reasons for administration, prescription patterns, effectiveness, and side effects. Clin. J. Pain. 21(6), 503–512 (2005).

Websites

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.