Treatment of schizophrenia in the 21st Century: beyond the neurotransmitter hypothesis

References

• Lehmann HE, Ban TA. The history of the psychopharmacology of schizophrenia. Can. J. Psychiatry42(2), 152–162 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane JM, Honigfeld G, Singer J, Meltzer H. Clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenics. Psychopharmacol. Bull.24(1), 62–67 (1988).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lehmann-Facius H. Uber die liquordiagnose der schizophrenien. Klin. Wochenschr.16, 1646–1648 (1937).
   Google Scholar
• Zorrilla EP, Cannon TD, Gur RE, Kessler J. Leukocytes and organ-nonspecific autoantibodies in schizophrenics and their siblings: markers of vulnerability or disease? Biol. Psychiatry40(9), 825–833 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazeh D, Sirota P, Patya M, Novogrodsky A. Antibodies to neuroblastoma cell line proteins in patients with schizophrenia. J. Neuroimmunol.84(2), 218–222 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Kirchbach A, Fischer EG, Kornhuber HH. Failure to detect dopamine receptor IgG autoantibodies in sera of schizophrenic patients (short note). J. Neural Transm.70(1–2), 175–179 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens A, Weller M. Ganglioside antibodies in schizophrenia and major depression. Biol. Psychiatry32(8), 728–730 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith DA, Germolec DR. Introduction to immunology and autoimmunity. Environ. Health Perspect.107(Suppl. 5), 661–665 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy-Soussan P, Barbouche R, Poirier MF, Galinowski A, Loo H, Avrameas S. A preliminary prospective study on natural autoantibodies and the response of untreated schizophrenic patients to neuroleptics. Biol. Psychiatry35(2), 135–138 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy-Soussan P, Berneman A, Poirier MF et al. Differences in the natural autoantibody patterns of patients with schizophrenia and normal individuals. J. Psychiatry Neurosci.21(2), 89–95 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganguli R, Rabin BS, Brar JS. Antinuclear and gastric parietal cell autoantibodies in schizophrenic patients. Biol. Psychiatry32(8), 735–738 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chengappa KN, Ganguli R, Yang ZW, Shurin G, Brar JS, Rabin BS. Impaired mitogen (PHA) responsiveness and increased autoantibodies in caucasian schizophrenic patients with the HLA B8/DR3 phenotype. Biol. Psychiatry37(8), 546–549 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sirota P, Firer MA, Schild K et al. Autoantibodies to DNA in multicase families with schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry33(6), 450–455 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chengappa KN, Ganguli R, Ulrich Ret al. The prevalence of autoantibodies among right and left handed schizophrenic patients and control subjects. Biol. Psychiatry32(9), 803–811 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chengappa KN, Ganguli R, Yang ZW, Brar JS, Li L, Rabin BS. Left-handed first-episode, neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients have a higher prevalence of autoantibodies. Schizophr. Res.8(1), 75–80 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sirota P, Firer M, Schild K et al. Increased anti-sm antibodies in schizophrenic patients and their families. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry17(5), 793–800 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Firer M, Sirota P, Schild K, Elizur A, Slor H. Anticardiolipin antibodies are elevated in drug-free, multiply affected families with schizophrenia. J. Clin. Immunol.14(1), 73–78 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang XF, Wang D, Zhu W, Delrahim KK, Dolnak D, Rapaport MH. Studies characterizing 60 kDa autoantibodies in subjects with schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry53(5), 361–375 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz MJ, Riedel M, Gruber R, Ackenheil M, Muller N. Antibodies to heat shock proteins in schizophrenic patients: implications for the mechanism of the disease. Am. J. Psychiatry156(7), 1103–1104 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz MJ, Riedel M, Gruber R, Muller N, Ackenheil, M. Autoantibodies against 60-kDa heat shock protein in schizophrenia. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.248(6), 282–288 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JJ, Lee SJ, Toh KY, Lee CU, Lee C, Paik IH. Identification of antibodies to heat shock proteins 90 kDa and 70 kDa in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res.52(1–2), 127–135 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shcherbakova IV, Siryachenk TM, Mazaeva NA, Kaleda VG, Krasnolobova SA, Klyushnik TP. Leukocyte elastase and autoantibodies to nerve growth factor in the acute phase of schizophrenia and their relationship to symptomatology. World J. Biol. Psychiatry5(3), 143–148 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler A, Shinitzky M. Platelets from schizophrenic patients bear autoimmune antibodies that inhibit dopamine uptake. Psychobiology21(4), 299–306 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Sinyakov MS, Kessler B, Karp L, Weizman A, Kessler AR. Platelet-associated antibodies mediate protective autoimmune response in schizophrenia. Neuropsychobiology48(1), 41–46 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichelt KL, Landmark J. Specific IgA antibody increases in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry37(6), 410–413 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henneberg AE, Horter S, Ruffert S. Increased prevalence of antibrain antibodies in the sera from schizophrenic patients. Schizophr. Res.14(1), 15–22 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schott K, Schaefer JE, Richartz E et al. Autoantibodies to serotonin in serum of patients with psychiatric disorders. Psychiatry Res.121(1), 51–57 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka S, Matsunaga H, Kimura M et al. Autoantibodies against four kinds of neurotransmitter receptors in psychiatric disorders. J. Neuroimmunol.141(1–2), 155–164 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukherjee S, Mahadik SP, Korenovsky A, Laev H, Schnur DB, Reddy R. Serum antibodies to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in schizophrenic patients. Schizophr. Res.12(2), 131–136 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borda T, Gomez R, Berria MI, Sterin-Borda L. Antibodies against astrocyte M1 and M2 muscarinic cholinoceptor from schizophrenic patients’ sera. Glia45(2), 144–154 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borda T, Perez Rivera R, Joensen L, Gomez RM, Sterin-Borda L. Antibodies against cerebral M1 cholinergic muscarinic receptor from schizophrenic patients: molecular interaction. J. Immunol.168(7), 3667–3674 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganguli R, Yang Z, Shurin G et al. Serum interleukin-6 concentration in schizophrenia: elevation associated with duration of illness. Psychiatry Res.51(1), 1–10 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Kammen DP, McAllister-Sistilli CG, Kelley ME, Gurklis JA, Yao JK. Elevated interleukin-6 in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res.87(2–3), 129–136 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang XY, Zhou DF, Zhang PY, Wu GY, Cao LY, Shen YC. Elevated interleukin-2, interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 serum levels in neuroleptic-free schizophrenia: association with psychopathology. Schizophr. Res.57(2–3), 247–258 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunes SO, Matsuo T, Kaminami MS, Watanabe MA, Reiche EM, Itano EN. An autoimmune or an inflammatory process in patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and in their biological relatives. Schizophr. Res.84(1), 180–182 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sirota P, Schild K, Elizur A, Djaldetti M, Fishman P. Increased interleukin-1 and interleukin-3 like activity in schizophrenic patients. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry19(1), 75–83 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riedel M, Spellmann I, Schwarz MJ et al. Decreased T cellular immune response in schizophrenic patients. J. Psychiatr. Res.41(1–2), 3–7 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz MJ, Kronig H, Riedel M et al. IL-2 and IL-4 polymorphisms as candidate genes in schizophrenia. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.256(2), 72–76 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger A. Th1 and Th2 responses: what are they? BMJ321(7258), 424 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan X, Goff DC, Henderson DC. Inflammation and schizophrenia. Expert Rev. Neurother7, 789–796 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ganguli R, Brar JS, Solomon W, Chengappa KN, Rabin BS. Altered interleukin-2 production in schizophrenia: association between clinical state and autoantibody production. Psychiatry Res.44(2), 113–123 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schattner A, Cori Y, Hahn T, Sirota P. No evidence for autoimmunity in schizophrenia. J. Autoimmun.9(5), 661–666 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satcher DS. Executive summary: a report of the surgeon general on mental health. Public Health Rep.115(1), 89–101 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lencz T, Morgan TV, Athansiou M et al. Converging evidence for a pseudoautosomal cytokine receptor gene locus in schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiatry12, 572–580 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen X, Wang X, Hossain S et al. Interleukin 3 and schizophrenia: the impact of sex and family history. Mol. Psychiatry12, 273–582 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lencz T, Lambert C, DeRosse P et al. Runs of homozygosity reveal highly penetrant recessive loci in schizophrenia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA104(50), 19942–19947 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen X, Kendler KS. Interleukin 3 and schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry165(1), 13–14 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chowdari KV, Xu K, Zhang F et al. Immune related genetic polymorphisms and schizophrenia among the Chinese. Hum. Immunol.62(7), 714–724 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haider MZ, Zahid MA. Human leukocyte antigen-DQB1 alleles are not associated with schizophrenia in Kuwaiti Arabs. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.58(3), 236–239 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwab SG, Hallmayer J, Freimann, J et al. Investigation of linkage and association/linkage disequilibrium of HLA A-, DQA1-, DQB1-, and DRB1- alleles in 69 sib-pair- and 89 trio-families with schizophrenia. Am. J. Med. Genet.114(3), 315–320 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glatt SJ, Everall IP, Kremen et al. Comparative gene expression analysis of blood and brain provides concurrent validation of SELENBP1 up-regulation in schizophrenia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA102(43), 15533–15538 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Debnath M, Das SK, Bera NK, Nayak CR, Chaudhuri TK. Genetic associations between delusional disorder and paranoid schizophrenia: a novel etiologic approach. Can. J. Psychiatry51(6), 342–349 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Debnath M, Chaudhuri TK. The role of HLA-G in cytokine homeostasis during early pregnancy complicated with maternal infections: a novel etiopathological approach to the neurodevelopmental understanding of schizophrenia. Med. Hypotheses66(2), 286–293 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laumbacher B, Muller N, Bondy B et al. Significant frequency deviation of the class I polymorphism HLA-A10 in schizophrenic patients. J. Med. Genet.40(3), 217–219 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawi Z, Gibson S, Straub RE, Walsh D, Kendler KS, Gill M. Schizophrenia and HLA: no association with PCR-SSOP typed classical loci in a large Irish familial sample. Am. J. Med. Genet.88(4), 422–429 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen LK, Mittleman BB, Kumra S et al. HLA antigens in childhood onset schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res.78(3), 123–132 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsumoto S, Sasaki T, Imamura A et al. HLA class I distribution in Japanese patients with schizophrenia. Am. J. Med. Genet.114(1), 42–45 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tochigi M, Ohashi J, Umekage T et al. Human leukocyte antigen-A specificities and its relation with season of birth in Japanese patients with schizophrenia. Neurosci. Lett.329(2), 201–204 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozcan ME, Taskin R, Banoglu R, Babacan M, Tuncer E. HLA antigens in schizophrenia and mood disorders. Biol. Psychiatry39(10), 891–895 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lie BA, Thorsby E. Several genes in the extended human MHC contribute to predisposition to autoimmune diseases. Curr. Opin. Immunol.17(5), 526–531 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAllister CG, Rapaport MH, Pickar D, Paul SM. Effects of short-term administration of antipsychotic drugs on lymphocyte subsets in schizophrenic patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry46(10), 956–957 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leykin I, Mayer R, Shinitzky M. Short and long-term immunosuppressive effects of clozapine and haloperidol. Immunopharmacology37(1), 75–86 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinze-Selch D Becker EW, Stein GM et al. Effects of clozapine on in vitro immune parameters: a longitudinal study in clozapine-treated schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychopharmacology19(2), 114–122 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang XY, Zhou DF, Cao LY, Zhang PY, Wu GY, Shen YC. Changes in serum interleukin-2, -6, and -8 levels before and during treatment with risperidone and haloperidol: relationship to outcome in schizophrenia. J. Clin. Psychiatry65(7), 940–947 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilici M, Tekelioglu Y, Efendioglu S, Ovali E, Ulgen M. The influence of olanzapine on immune cells in patients with schizophrenia. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry27(3), 483–485 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller N, Riedel M, Scheppach C et al. Beneficial antipsychotic effects of celecoxib add-on therapy compared to risperidone alone in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry159(6), 1029–1034 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine J, Gutman J, Feraro R et al. Side effect profile of azathioprine in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychobiology36(4), 172–176 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta S, Jain S, Brahmachari SK, Kukreti R. Pharmacogenomics: a path to predictive medicine for schizophrenia. Pharmacogenomics7(1), 31–47 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nnadi CU, Malhotra AK. Individualizing antipsychotic drug therapy in schizophrenia: the promise of pharmacogenetics. Curr. Psychiatry Rep.9(4), 313–318 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Centorrino F, Goren JL, Hennen J, Salvatore P, Kelleher JP, Baldessarini RJ. Multiple versus single antipsychotic agents for hospitalized psychiatric patients: Case–control study of risks versus benefits. Am. J. Psychiatry161(4), 700–706 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefansson H, Rujescu D, Cichon S et al. Large recurrent microdeletions associated with schizophrenia. Nature455(7210), 232–236 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone JL, O’Donovan MC, Gurling H et al. The International Schizophrenia Consortium. Rare chromosomal deletions and duplications increase risk of schizophrenia. Nature455(7210), 237–241 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar