3,548
Views
23
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Middle East respiratory syndrome: obstacles and prospects for vaccine development

, , , , &

References

  • Brookes VJ, Hernandez-Jover M, Black PF, Ward MP. Preparedness for emerging infectious diseases: pathways from anticipation to action. Epidemiol Infect 2014;1-16. [Epub ahead of print]
  • World Health Organziation. Global alert and response (GAR). Situation reports with epidemiological data: archive. 2015. Available from: www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/situation-reports/archive/en/
  • World Health Organziation. WHO risk assessment: human infection with avian influenza A(H7N9) virus as of 2 October 2014. 2014. Available from: www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/influenza_h7n9/riskassessment_h7n9_2Oct14.pdf?ua=1
  • Foster CB, Friedman N, Carl J, Piedimonte G. Enterovirus D68: a clinically important respiratory enterovirus. Cleve Clin J Med 2015;82(1):26-31
  • World Health Organization. Global alert and response (GAR): Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) – Oman. Disease outbreak news as of 23 January 2015. 2015. Available from: www.who.int/csr/don/23-january-2015-mers-oman/en/
  • Himeidan YE, Kweka EJ, Mahgoub MM, et al. Recent outbreaks of rift valley Fever in East Africa and the middle East. Front Public Health 2014;2:169
  • Cheng VC, Lau SK, Woo PC, Yuen KY. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007;20(4):660-94
  • Falzarano D, de Wit E, Martellaro C, et al. Inhibition of novel beta coronavirus replication by a combination of interferon-alpha2b and ribavirin. Sci Rep 2013;3:1686
  • Ren Z, Yan L, Zhang N, et al. The newly emerged SARS-like coronavirus HCoV-EMC also has an “Achilles’ heel”: current effective inhibitor targeting a 3C-like protease. Protein Cell 2013;4(4):248-50
  • Jiang L, Wang N, Zuo T, et al. Potent neutralization of MERS-CoV by human neutralizing monoclonal antibodies to the viral spike glycoprotein. Sci Transl Med 2014;6(234):234ra259
  • Spanakis N, Tsiodras S, Haagmans BL, et al. Virological and serological analysis of a recent Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection case on a triple combination antiviral regimen. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2014;44(6):528-32
  • Dyall J, Coleman CM, Hart BJ, et al. Repurposing of clinically developed drugs for treatment of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014;58(8):4885-93
  • Chan JF, Chan KH, Kao RY, et al. Broad-spectrum antivirals for the emerging Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Infect 2013;67(6):606-16
  • Tang XC, Agnihothram SS, Jiao Y, et al. Identification of human neutralizing antibodies against MERS-CoV and their role in virus adaptive evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014;111(19):E2018-26
  • Cheng KW, Cheng SC, Chen WY, et al. Thiopurine analogs and mycophenolic acid synergistically inhibit the papain-like protease of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Antiviral Res 2015;115:9-16
  • Hart BJ, Dyall J, Postnikova E, et al. Interferon-beta and mycophenolic acid are potent inhibitors of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in cell-based assays. J Gen Virol 2014;95(Pt 3):571-7
  • Liu Q, Xia S, Sun Z, et al. Testing of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus replication inhibitors for the ability to block viral entry. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015;59(1):742-4
  • de Wilde AH, Jochmans D, Posthuma CC, et al. Screening of an FDA-approved compound library identifies four small-molecule inhibitors of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus replication in cell culture. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014;58(8):4875-84
  • Zaki AM, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, et al. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med 2012;367(19):1814-20
  • Assiri A, Al-Tawfiq JA, Al-Rabeeah AA, et al. Epidemiological, demographic, and clinical characteristics of 47 cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease from Saudi Arabia: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13(9):752-61
  • Al-Tawfiq JA, Assiri A, Memish ZA. Middle East respiratory syndrome novel corona MERS-CoV infection. Epidemiology and outcome update. Saudi Med J 2013;34(10):991-4
  • Chowell G, Blumberg S, Simonsen L, et al. Synthesizing data and models for the spread of MERS-CoV, 2013: key role of index cases and hospital transmission. Epidemics 2014;9:40-51
  • Zumla A, Mwaba P, Bates M, et al. The Hajj pilgrimage and surveillance for Middle East Respiratory syndrome coronavirus in pilgrims from African countries. Trop Med Int Health 2014;19(7):838-40
  • Gardner LM, Rey D, Heywood AE, et al. A scenario-based evaluation of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus and the Hajj. Risk Anal 2014;34(8):1391-400
  • Memish ZA, Al-Tawfiq JA, Makhdoom HQ, et al. Screening for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in hospital patients and their healthcare worker and family contacts: a prospective descriptive study. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014;20(5):469-74
  • Saad M, Omrani AS, Baig K, et al. Clinical aspects and outcomes of 70 patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection: a single-center experience in Saudi Arabia. Int J Infect Dis 2014;29:301-6
  • Hayden FG, Farrar J, Peiris JS. Towards improving clinical management of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Lancet Infect Dis 2014;14(7):544-6
  • Guery B, Poissy J, el Mansouf L, et al. Clinical features and viral diagnosis of two cases of infection with Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus: a report of nosocomial transmission. Lancet 2013;381(9885):2265-72
  • Arabi YM, Arifi AA, Balkhy HH, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Ann Intern Med 2014;160(6):389-97
  • Drosten C, Meyer B, Muller MA, et al. Transmission of MERS-coronavirus in household contacts. N Engl J Med 2014;371(9):828-35
  • van Boheemen S, de Graaf M, Lauber C, et al. Genomic characterization of a newly discovered coronavirus associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome in humans. MBio 2012;3(6):e00473-12
  • de Groot RJ, Baker SC, Baric RS, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group. J Virol 2013;87(14):7790-2
  • Perera RA, Wang P, Gomaa MR, et al. Seroepidemiology for MERS coronavirus using microneutralisation and pseudoparticle virus neutralisation assays reveal a high prevalence of antibody in dromedary camels in Egypt, June 2013. Euro Surveill 2013;18(36):20574
  • Reusken CB, Messadi L, Feyisa A, et al. Geographic distribution of MERS coronavirus among dromedary camels, Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(8):1370-4
  • Corman VM, Jores J, Meyer B, et al. Antibodies against MERS coronavirus in dromedary camels, Kenya, 1992-2013. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(8):1319-22
  • Reusken CB, Ababneh M, Raj VS, et al. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) serology in major livestock species in an affected region in Jordan, June to September 2013. Euro Surveill 2013;18(50):20662
  • Reusken CB, Haagmans BL, Muller MA, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus neutralising serum antibodies in dromedary camels: a comparative serological study. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13(10):859-66
  • Alagaili AN, Briese T, Mishra N, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection in dromedary camels in Saudi Arabia. MBio 2014;5(2):e00884-14
  • Hemida MG, Chu DK, Poon LL, et al. MERS coronavirus in dromedary camel herd, Saudi Arabia. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(7):1231-4
  • Muller MA, Corman VM, Jores J, et al. MERS coronavirus neutralizing antibodies in camels, Eastern Africa, 1983-1997. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(12):2093-5
  • Alexandersen S, Kobinger GP, Soule G, Wernery U. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus antibody reactors among camels in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in 2005. Transbound Emerg Dis 2014;61(2):105-8
  • Meyer B, Muller MA, Corman VM, et al. Antibodies against MERS coronavirus in dromedary camels, United Arab Emirates, 2003 and 2013. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(4):552-9
  • Azhar EI, El-Kafrawy SA, Farraj SA, et al. Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus. N Engl J Med 2014;370(26):2499-505
  • Briese T, Mishra N, Jain K, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus quasispecies that include homologues of human isolates revealed through whole-genome analysis and virus cultured from dromedary camels in Saudi Arabia. MBio 2014;5(3):e01146-14
  • Chu DK, Poon LL, Gomaa MM, et al. MERS coronaviruses in dromedary camels, Egypt. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(6):1049-53
  • Haagmans BL, Al Dhahiry SH, Reusken CB, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in dromedary camels: an outbreak investigation. Lancet Infect Dis 2014;14(2):140-5
  • Memish ZA, Cotten M, Meyer B, et al. Human infection with MERS coronavirus after exposure to infected camels, Saudi Arabia, 2013. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(6):1012-15
  • Nowotny N, Kolodziejek J. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in dromedary camels, Oman, 2013. Euro Surveill 2014;19(16):20781
  • Raj VS, Farag EA, Reusken CB, et al. Isolation of MERS coronavirus from a dromedary camel, Qatar, 2014. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(8):1339-42
  • Chan RW, Hemida MG, Kayali G, et al. Tropism and replication of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus from dromedary camels in the human respiratory tract: an in-vitro and ex-vivo study. Lancet Respir Med 2014;2(10):813-22
  • Adney DR, van Doremalen N, Brown VR, et al. Replication and shedding of MERS-CoV in upper respiratory tract of inoculated dromedary camels. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(12):1999-2005
  • Aburizaiza AS, Mattes FM, Azhar EI, et al. Investigation of anti-middle East respiratory syndrome antibodies in blood donors and slaughterhouse workers in Jeddah and Makkah, Saudi Arabia, fall 2012. J Infect Dis 2014;209(2):243-6
  • Gierer S, Hofmann-Winkler H, Albuali WH, et al. Lack of MERS coronavirus neutralizing antibodies in humans, eastern province, Saudi Arabia. Emerg Infect Dis 2013;19(12):2034-6
  • Ge XY, Li JL, Yang XL, et al. Isolation and characterization of a bat SARS-like coronavirus that uses the ACE2 receptor. Nature 2013;503(7477):535-8
  • Annan A, Baldwin HJ, Corman VM, et al. Human betacoronavirus 2c EMC/2012-related viruses in bats, Ghana and Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 2013;19(3):456-9
  • Corman VM, Ithete NL, Richards LR, et al. Rooting the phylogenetic tree of middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus by characterization of a conspecific virus from an African bat. J Virol 2014;88(19):11297-303
  • Yang L, Wu Z, Ren X, et al. MERS-related betacoronavirus in Vespertilio superans bats, China. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20(7):1260-2
  • Lau SK, Li KS, Tsang AK, et al. Genetic characterization of betacoronavirus lineage C viruses in bats reveals marked sequence divergence in the spike protein of pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5 in Japanese pipistrelle: implications for the origin of the novel Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol 2013;87(15):8638-50
  • Ithete NL, Stoffberg S, Corman VM, et al. Close relative of human Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bat, South Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 2013;19(10):1697-9
  • Anthony SJ, Ojeda-Flores R, Rico-Chavez O, et al. Coronaviruses in bats from Mexico. J Gen Virol 2013;94(Pt 5):1028-38
  • Corman VM, Rasche A, Diallo TD, et al. Highly diversified coronaviruses in neotropical bats. J Gen Virol 2013;94(Pt 9):1984-94
  • Lau SK, Poon RW, Wong BH, et al. Coexistence of different genotypes in the same bat and serological characterization of Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9 belonging to a novel Betacoronavirus subgroup. J Virol 2010;84(21):11385-94
  • Tao Y, Tang K, Shi M, et al. Genomic characterization of seven distinct bat coronaviruses in Kenya. Virus Res 2012;167(1):67-73
  • Cotten M, Watson SJ, Kellam P, et al. Transmission and evolution of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in Saudi Arabia: a descriptive genomic study. Lancet 2013;382(9909):1993-2002
  • Yang Y, Du L, Liu C, et al. Receptor usage and cell entry of bat coronavirus HKU4 provide insight into bat-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014;111(34):12516-21
  • Memish ZA, Mishra N, Olival KJ, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia. Emerg Infect Dis 2013;19(11):1819-23
  • Cai Y, Yu SQ, Postnikova EN, et al. CD26/DPP4 cell-surface expression in bat cells correlates with bat cell susceptibility to Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection and evolution of persistent infection. PLoS One 2014;9(11):e112060
  • Chastel C. [Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS): bats or dromedary, which of them is responsible?]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2014;107(2):69-73
  • Kapoor M, Pringle K, Kumar A, et al. Clinical and laboratory findings of the first imported case of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus to the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2014;59(11):1511-18
  • Drosten C, Seilmaier M, Corman VM, et al. Clinical features and virological analysis of a case of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13(9):745-51
  • Lundin A, Dijkman R, Bergstrom T, et al. Targeting membrane-bound viral RNA synthesis reveals potent inhibition of diverse coronaviruses including the middle East respiratory syndrome virus. PLoS Pathog 2014;10(5):e1004166
  • Falzarano D, de Wit E, Rasmussen AL, et al. Treatment with interferon-alpha2b and ribavirin improves outcome in MERS-CoV-infected rhesus macaques. Nat Med 2013;19(10):1313-17
  • Shirato K, Kawase M, Matsuyama S. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection mediated by the transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS2. J Virol 2013;87(23):12552-61
  • Achonu C, Laporte A, Gardam MA. The financial impact of controlling a respiratory virus outbreak in a teaching hospital: lessons learned from SARS. Can J Public Health 2005;96(1):52-4
  • Yazdanpanah Y, Daval A, Alfandari S, et al. Analysis of costs attributable to an outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome at a French hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27(11):1282-5
  • Lee J, McKibbin W. Estimating the global costs of SARS. In: Knobler S, Mahmoud A, Lemon S, et al. editors. Learning from SARS: preparing for the next disease outbreak: workshop summary. National Academies Press; Washington, DC: 2004. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92473/ [ [Last accessed 31 October 2014]
  • Bialek SR, Allen D, Alvarado-Ramy F, et al. First confirmed cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection in the United States, updated information on the epidemiology of MERS-CoV infection, and guidance for the public, clinicians, and public health authorities - May 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014;63(19):431-6
  • International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. The international code of virus classification and nomenclature. In: King AMQ, Adams MJ, Carstens EB, Lefkowitz EJ, editors. Virus taxonomy - ninth report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses. Elsevier, Academic Press; London, UK: 2011. p. 1273-7
  • Qian Z, Dominguez SR, Holmes KV. Role of the spike glycoprotein of human Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in virus entry and syncytia formation. PLoS One 2013;8(10):e76469
  • Du L, Kou Z, Ma C, et al. A truncated receptor-binding domain of MERS-CoV spike protein potently inhibits MERS-CoV infection and induces strong neutralizing antibody responses: implication for developing therapeutics and vaccines. PLoS One 2013;8(12):e81587
  • Du L, Zhao G, Kou Z, et al. Identification of a receptor-binding domain in the S protein of the novel human coronavirus Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an essential target for vaccine development. J Virol 2013;87(17):9939-42
  • Chan KH, Chan JF, Tse H, et al. Cross-reactive antibodies in convalescent SARS patients’ sera against the emerging novel human coronavirus EMC (2012) by both immunofluorescent and neutralizing antibody tests. J Infect 2013;67(2):130-40
  • Zhang N, Jiang S, Du L. Current advancements and potential strategies in the development of MERS-CoV vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014;13(6):761-74
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human rabies. 2014. Available from: www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/human_rabies.html [Last accessed on 10 December 2104]
  • Buddle BM, Wedlock DN, Denis M. Progress in the development of tuberculosis vaccines for cattle and wildlife. Vet Microbiol 2006;112(2-4):191-200
  • Beltran-Beck B, Ballesteros C, Vicente J, et al. Progress in oral vaccination against tuberculosis in its main wildlife reservoir in Iberia, the Eurasian wild boar. Vet Med Int 2012;2012:978501
  • Al-Gethamy M, Corman VM, Hussain R, et al. A case of long-term excretion and subclinical infection with Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus in a healthcare worker. Clin Infect Dis 2015;60(6):973-4
  • Faure E, Poissy J, Goffard A, et al. Distinct immune response in two MERS-CoV-infected patients: can we go from bench to bedside? PLoS One 2014;9(2):e88716
  • Zhao J, Li K, Wohlford-Lenane C, et al. Rapid generation of a mouse model for Middle East respiratory syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014;111(13):4970-5
  • Pulendran B, Oh JZ, Nakaya HI, et al. Immunity to viruses: learning from successful human vaccines. Immunol Rev 2013;255(1):243-55
  • Zust R, Cervantes-Barragan L, Kuri T, et al. Coronavirus non-structural protein 1 is a major pathogenicity factor: implications for the rational design of coronavirus vaccines. PLoS Pathog 2007;3(8):e109
  • Jacobs BL, Langland JO, Kibler KV, et al. Vaccinia virus vaccines: past, present and future. Antiviral Res 2009;84(1):1-13
  • Wyatt LS, Shors ST, Murphy BR, Moss B. Development of a replication-deficient recombinant vaccinia virus vaccine effective against parainfluenza virus 3 infection in an animal model. Vaccine 1996;14(15):1451-8
  • Wyatt LS, Whitehead SS, Venanzi KA, et al. Priming and boosting immunity to respiratory syncytial virus by recombinant replication-defective vaccinia virus MVA. Vaccine 1999;18(5-6):392-7
  • Fitzgerald JC, Gao GP, Reyes-Sandoval A, et al. A simian replication-defective adenoviral recombinant vaccine to HIV-1 gag. J Immunol 2003;170(3):1416-22
  • Ledgerwood JE, DeZure AD, Stanley DA, et al. Chimpanzee adenovirus vector Ebola vaccine - preliminary report. N Engl J Med 2014. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Powell TJ, Peng Y, Berthoud TK, et al. Examination of influenza specific T cell responses after influenza virus challenge in individuals vaccinated with MVA-NP+M1 vaccine. PLoS One 2013;8(5):e62778
  • Stanley DA, Honko AN, Asiedu C, et al. Chimpanzee adenovirus vaccine generates acute and durable protective immunity against ebolavirus challenge. Nat Med 2014;20(10):1126-9
  • Kenney JL, Volk SM, Pandya J, et al. Stability of RNA virus attenuation approaches. Vaccine 2011;29(12):2230-4
  • Batorsky R, Sergeev RA, Rouzine IM. The route of HIV escape from immune response targeting multiple sites is determined by the cost-benefit tradeoff of escape mutations. PLoS Comput Biol 2014;10(10):e1003878
  • Almazan F, DeDiego ML, Sola I, et al. Engineering a replication-competent, propagation-defective Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus as a vaccine candidate. MBio 2013;4(5):e00650-13
  • Spruth M, Kistner O, Savidis-Dacho H, et al. A double-inactivated whole virus candidate SARS coronavirus vaccine stimulates neutralising and protective antibody responses. Vaccine 2006;24(5):652-61
  • See RH, Petric M, Lawrence DJ, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome vaccine efficacy in ferrets: whole killed virus and adenovirus-vectored vaccines. J Gen Virol 2008;89(Pt 9):2136-46
  • Bolles M, Deming D, Long K, et al. A double-inactivated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus vaccine provides incomplete protection in mice and induces increased eosinophilic proinflammatory pulmonary response upon challenge. J Virol 2011;85(23):12201-15
  • Yaqub O, Castle-Clarke S, Sevdalis N, Chataway J. Attitudes to vaccination: a critical review. Soc Sci Med 2014;112:1-11
  • Dube E, Gagnon D, Nickels E, et al. Mapping vaccine hesitancy – country-specific characteristics of a global phenomenon. Vaccine 2014;32(49):6649-54
  • Appaiahgari MB, Vrati S. Adenoviruses as gene/vaccine delivery vectors: promises and pitfalls. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2015;15(3):337-51
  • Lichty BD, Power AT, Stojdl DF, Bell JC. Vesicular stomatitis virus: re-inventing the bullet. Trends Mol Med 2004;10(5):210-16
  • Altenburg AF, Kreijtz JH, de Vries RD, et al. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) as production platform for vaccines against influenza and other viral respiratory diseases. Viruses 2014;6(7):2735-61
  • Poon LL, Leung YH, Nicholls JM, et al. Vaccinia virus-based multivalent H5N1 avian influenza vaccines adjuvanted with IL-15 confer sterile cross-clade protection in mice. J Immunol 2009;182(5):3063-71
  • Song F, Fux R, Provacia LB, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein delivered by modified vaccinia virus Ankara efficiently induces virus-neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 2013;87(21):11950-4
  • Trivedi S, Jackson RJ, Ranasinghe C. Different HIV pox viral vector-based vaccines and adjuvants can induce unique antigen presenting cells that modulate CD8 T cell avidity. Virology 2014;468-470:479-89
  • Blaney JE, Marzi A, Willet M, et al. Antibody quality and protection from lethal Ebola virus challenge in nonhuman primates immunized with rabies virus based bivalent vaccine. PLoS Pathog 2013;9(5):e1003389
  • Papaneri AB, Wirblich C, Cooper K, et al. Further characterization of the immune response in mice to inactivated and live rabies vaccines expressing Ebola virus glycoprotein. Vaccine 2012;30(43):6136-41
  • Escriou N, Callendret B, Lorin V, et al. Protection from SARS coronavirus conferred by live measles vaccine expressing the spike glycoprotein. Virology 2014;452-453:32-41
  • Kim E, Okada K, Kenniston T, et al. Immunogenicity of an adenoviral-based Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus vaccine in BALB/c mice. Vaccine 2014;32(45):5975-82
  • Coleman CM, Liu YV, Mu H, et al. Purified coronavirus spike protein nanoparticles induce coronavirus neutralizing antibodies in mice. Vaccine 2014;32(26):3169-74
  • Hutnick NA, Myles DJ, Bian CB, et al. Selected approaches for increasing HIV DNA vaccine immunogenicity in vivo. Curr Opin Virol 2011;1(4):233-40
  • Health Promotion Board, Singapore. FAQs on human papilloma virus (HPV) and HPV vaccination. 2014. Available from: www.hpb.gov.sg/HOPPortal/health-article/8768 [Last accessed on 2 December 2014]
  • European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Vaccine schedule: recommended immunisations for human papillomavirus infection. Available from: http://vaccine-schedule.ecdc.europa.eu/Pages/Scheduler.aspx [Last accessed on 2 December 2014]
  • Cancer Council Australia. The HPV vaccine. Available from: www.hpvvaccine.org.au/about-the-vaccine/vaccine-background.aspx [Last accessed 2 December 2014]
  • Ladner J, Besson MH, Hampshire R, et al. Assessment of eight HPV vaccination programs implemented in lowest income countries. BMC Public Health 2012;12:370
  • Ladner J, Besson MH, Rodrigues M, et al. Performance of 21 HPV vaccination programs implemented in low and middle-income countries, 2009-2013. BMC Public Health 2014;14:670
  • Available from: http://ir.inovio.com/news/news-releases/news-releases-details/2013/Inovio-Pharmaceuticals-DNA-Vaccine-for-the-Deadly-MERS-Virus-Induces-Robust-Immune-Response-in-Preclinical-Trial/default.aspx
  • Sharmin R, Islam AB. A highly conserved WDYPKCDRA epitope in the RNA directed RNA polymerase of human coronaviruses can be used as epitope-based universal vaccine design. BMC Bioinformatics 2014;15:161
  • Weiskopf D, Angelo MA, Bangs DJ, et al. The human CD8+ T cell responses induced by a live attenuated tetravalent dengue vaccine are directed against highly conserved epitopes. J Virol 2015;89(1):120-8
  • Slifka MK, Amanna I. How advances in immunology provide insight into improving vaccine efficacy. Vaccine 2014;32(25):2948-57
  • Oany AR, Emran AA, Jyoti TP. Design of an epitope-based peptide vaccine against spike protein of human coronavirus: an in silico approach. Drug Des Devel Ther 2014;8:1139-49
  • Terry FE, Moise L, Martin RF, et al. Time for T? Immunoinformatics addresses vaccine design for neglected tropical and emerging infectious diseases. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015;14(1):21-35
  • Food and Drug Administration. Guidance for industry: product development under the animal rule. Draft guidance. 2014. Available from: www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM399217.pdf [Last accessed 15 December 2014]
  • Raj VS, Smits SL, Provacia LB, et al. Adenosine deaminase acts as a natural antagonist for dipeptidyl peptidase 4-mediated entry of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol 2014;88(3):1834-8
  • de Wit E, Rasmussen AL, Falzarano D, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) causes transient lower respiratory tract infection in rhesus macaques. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2013;110(41):16598-603
  • Yao Y, Bao L, Deng W, et al. An animal model of MERS produced by infection of rhesus macaques with MERS coronavirus. J Infect Dis 2014;209(2):236-42
  • Munster VJ, de Wit E, Feldmann H. Pneumonia from human coronavirus in a macaque model. N Engl J Med 2013;368(16):1560-2
  • Falzarano D, de Wit E, Feldmann F, et al. Infection with MERS-CoV causes lethal pneumonia in the common marmoset. PLoS Pathog 2014;10(8):e1004250
  • Graham RL, Donaldson EF, Baric RS. A decade after SARS: strategies for controlling emerging coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013;11(12):836-48
  • De Groot AS, Einck L, Moise L, et al. Making vaccines "on demand": a potential solution for emerging pathogens and biodefense? Hum Vaccin Immunother 2013;9(9):1877-84
  • Fries LF, Smith GE, Glenn GM. A recombinant viruslike particle influenza A (H7N9) vaccine. N Engl J Med 2013;369(26):2564-6
  • Serdobova I, Kieny MP. Assembling a global vaccine development pipeline for infectious diseases in the developing world. Am J Public Health 2006;96(9):1554-9
  • Kilianski A, Mielech AM, Deng X, Baker SC. Assessing activity and inhibition of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus papain-like and 3C-like proteases using luciferase-based biosensors. J Virol 2013;87(21):11955-62
  • Yang X, Chen X, Bian G, et al. Proteolytic processing, deubiquitinase and interferon antagonist activities of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus papain-like protease. J Gen Virol 2014;95(Pt 3):614-26
  • Scobey T, Yount BL, Sims AC, et al. Reverse genetics with a full-length infectious cDNA of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2013;110(40):16157-62
  • Zhao G, Du L, Ma C, et al. A safe and convenient pseudovirus-based inhibition assay to detect neutralizing antibodies and screen for viral entry inhibitors against the novel human coronavirus MERS-CoV. Virol J 2013;10:266
  • Yang Y, Zhang L, Geng H, et al. The structural and accessory proteins M, ORF 4a, ORF 4b, and ORF 5 of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) are potent interferon antagonists. Protein Cell 2013;4(12):951-61
  • Niemeyer D, Zillinger T, Muth D, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus accessory protein 4a is a type I interferon antagonist. J Virol 2013;87(22):12489-95
  • Agnihothram S, Yount BLJr, Donaldson EF, et al. A mouse model for betacoronavirus subgroup 2c using a bat coronavirus strain HKU5 variant. MBio 2014;5(2):e00047-14
  • Available from: http://kff.org/other/state-indicator/expenses-per-inpatient-day/#
  • Available from: www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2013/06/daily-chart-18

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.