Recent advances in antifungal pharmacotherapy for invasive fungal infections

References

• Blumberg HM, Jarvis WR, Soucie JM, et al Risk factors for candidal bloodstream infections in surgical intensive care unit patients: the NEMIS prospective multicenter study. The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(2), 177–186 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marr KA, Carter RA, Crippa F, Wald A, Corey L. Epidemiology and outcome of mould infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34(7), 909–917 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudlaugsson O, Gillespie S, Lee K, et al Attributable mortality of nosocomial candidemia, revisted. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(9), 1172–1177 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin SJ, Schranz J, Teutsch SM. Aspergillosis case-fatality rate: systematic review of the literature. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32(3), 358–366 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snydman DR Shifting patterns in the epidemiology of nosocomial Candida infections. Chest. 123\(Suppl. 5), 500–503 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Singh N. Trends in the epidemiology of opportunistic fungal infections: predisposing factors and the impact of antimicrobial use practices. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(10), 1692–1696 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Details the shifting spectrum of fungal infections and the factors that are responsible.
   Google Scholar
• Munoz P, Fernandez-Turegano CP, Alcala L, et al Frequency and clinical significance of bloodstream infections caused by C albicans strains with reduced susceptibility to fluconazole. Diagn. Microbial Infect. Dis. 44(2), 163–167 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Pelz RK, Hendrix CW, Swoboda SM, et al Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of fluconazole to prevent candidal infections in critically ill surgical patients. Ann. Surg. 233(4), 542–548 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garbino J, Lew DP, Romand JA, et al Prevention of severe Candida infections in non-neutropenic, high-risk, critically ill patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients treated by selective digestive decontamination. Intensive Care Med 28(12), 1708–1717 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Koh LP, Kurup A, Goh YT, et al. Randomized trial of fluconazole versus low-dose amphotericin B in prophylaxis against fungal infections in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Am. J. Hematol 71(4), 260–267 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oliveira JS, Kerbauy FR, Colombo AL, et al Fungal infections in marrow transplant recipients under antifungal prophylaxis with fluconazole. Braz J. Med. Bid Res. 35(7), 789–798 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu W, Lewis RE, May GS, Kontoyiannis DP Pre-exposure of A. filmigatus to fluconazole (FLU) induces tolerance to itraconazole (Itra) in vivo. Proceedings of the 43rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy IL, USA, 14–17 September 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Rex JH, Pfaller MA, Barry AL, Nelson PW, Webb CD. Antifungal susceptibility testing of isolates from a randomized, multicenter trial of fluconazole versus amphotericin B as treatment of nonneutropenic patients with candidemia. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39(1), 40–44 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens DA, Kan VL, Judson MA, et al Practice guidelines for diseases caused by Aspergillus. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(4), 696–709 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Wingard JR, Kubilis P, Lee L, et al Clinical significance of nephrotoxicity in patients treated with amphotericin B for suspected or proven aspergillosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29(6), 1402–1407 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •A retrospective study that shows the detrimental effect of AmBd-induced renal dysfunction.
   Google Scholar
• Ng AW, Wasan KM, Lopez-Berestein G. Development of liposomal polyene antibiotics: an historical perspective. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 6(1), 67–83 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dix SP, Andriole VT. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B. Curr. Clin. Top. Infect. Dis. 20,1–23 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wong-Beringer A, Jacobs RA, Guglielmo BJ. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B: clinical efficacy and toxicities. Clin. Infect. Dis. 27(3), 603–618 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deray G. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 49(Suppl.), 41 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Walsh TJ, Goodman JL, Pappas P, et al Safety, tolerance and pharmacokinetics of high-dose liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) in patients infected with Aspergillus species and other filamentous fungi: maximum tolerated dose study. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45(12), 3487–3496 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Bowden R, Chandrasekar P, White MH, et al A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion versus amphotericin B for treatment of invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(4), 359–366 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Comparison between ABCD and AmBd highlighting the differences in the safety profile of these agents.
   Google Scholar
• Walsh TJ, Finberg RW, Arndt G, et al Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. N Engl J Med 340(10), 764–771 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujisawa Corporation. AmBisome package insert. Deerfield, IL, USA (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Enzon Corporation. Abeket package insert. Bridgewater, NJ, USA (2003).
   Google Scholar
• InterMune Corporation. Amp hotec package insert. Brisbane, CA, USA (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Wingard JR. Lipid formulations of amphotericins: are you a lumper or a splitter? Clin. Infect. Dis. 35,891–895 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingard JR, White MH, Anaissie E, et al A randomized, double-blind comparative trial evaluating the safety of liposomal amphotericin B versus amphotericin B lipid complex in the empirical treatment of febrile neutropenia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31(5), 1155–1163 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••One of the few useful clinical comparisonsbetween LFABs.
   Google Scholar
• Fleming RV, Kantarjian HM, Husni R, et al Comparison of amphotericin B lipid complex (ABLC) vs. ambisome in the treatment of suspected or documented fungal infections in patients with leukemia. Leuk. Lymphoma 40(5–6), 511-520(2001).
   Google Scholar
• Tiphine M, Letscher-Bru V, Herbrecht R, Amphotericin B and its new formulations: pharmacologic characteristics, clinical efficacy and tolerability. Transpl Infict. Dis. 1(4), 273–283 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hann IM, Prentice HG. Lipid-based amphotericin B: a review of the last 10 years of use. Int. J Antimicrob. Agents 17(3), 161–169 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Marr KA, Rex JH, Cohen SH. Amphotericin B: time for a new 'gold standard'. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(3), 415–425 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett JP, Vardulaki KA, Conlon C, et al A systematic review of the antifungal effectiveness and tolerability of amphotericin B formulations. Clin. Ther 25(5), 1295–1320 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD, et al Practice guidelines for the treatment of candidiasis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infict. Dis. 30(4), 662–678 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Evidence-based guidelines for management of candidal infections.
   Google Scholar
• Cagnoni PJ, Walsh TJ, Prendergast MM, et al Pharmacoeconomic analysis of liposomal amphotericin B versus conventional amphotericin B in the empirical treatment of persistently febrile neutropenic patients. J. Clin. Oncol 18(12), 2476–2483 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson U, Tennvall GR, Andersson S, Tyden G, Wettermark B. Cost-effectiveness analysis of treatment with liposomal amphotericin B versus conventional amphotericin B in organ or bone marrow transplant recipients with systemic mycoses. Pharmacoeconomics 2(6), 500–508 (1992).
   Google Scholar
• Kuti JL, Kotapati S, Williams P, et al Pharmacoeconomic analysis of amphotericin B lipid complex versus liposomal amphotericin B in the treatment of fungal infections. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. CA, USA, 27–30 September 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Speich R, Dutly A, Naef R, et al Tolerability, safety and efficacy of conventional ampohtericin B administered by 24 hour infusion to lung transplant recipients. Swiss Med. Wkly 132,455–458 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksson U, Seifert B, Schaffner A. Comparison of effects of amphotericin B deoxycholate infused over 4 or 24 h: randomized controlled trial. Br. Med. J. 332,1–6 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Imhof A, Walter RB, Schaffner A. Continuous infusion of escalated doses of amphotericin B deoxycholate: an open-label observational study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36,943–951 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Galgiani JN, Ampel NM, Catanzaro A, et al Practice guideline for the treatment of coccidioidomycosis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(4), 658–661 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saag MS, Graybill RJ, Larsen RA, et al Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(4), 710–718 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen Pharmaceutical Products. Sporanox® (itraconazole) package insert. Raritan, NJ, USA (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Boogaerts MM, Winston DJM, Bow EJM, et al Intravenous and oral itraconazole versus intravenous amphotericin B deoxycholate as empirical antifungal therapy for persistent fever in neutropenic patients with cancer who are receiving broad spectrum antibacterial therapy: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 135(6), 412–422 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Denning DW, Lee JY, Hostetler JS, et al NIAID mycoses study group multicenter trial of oral itraconazole therapy for invasive aspergillosis. Am. J. Med. 97(2), 135–144 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harousseau JL, Dekker AW, Staffiatoullas-Bastard A, et al Itraconazole oral solution for primary prophylaxis of fungal infections in patients with hematological malignancy and profound neutropenia: a randomized, double-blind, double-placebo, multicenter trial comparing itraconazole and amphotericin B. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44(7), 1887–1893 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barone JA, Moskovitz BL, Guarnieri J, et al Enhanced bioavailability of itraconazole in hydroxypropy1-13-cyclodextrin solution versus capsules in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42(7), 1862–1865 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slain D, Rogers PD, Cleary JD, Chapman SW Intravenous itraconazole. Ann. Pharmacother 35(6), 720–729 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terrell CL. Antifungal agents. Part II. The azoles. Mayo Clin. Proc. 74(1), 78–100 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Perfect JR, Marr KA, Walsh TJ, et al Voriconazole treatment for less common, emerging, or refractory fungal infections. Clin. Infict. Dis. 36(9), 1122–1131 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Reports on voriconazole use in manydifficult to treat infections.
   Google Scholar
• Espinel-Ingroff A. In vitro fungicidal activities of voriconazole, itraconazole and amphotericin B against opportunistic moniliaceous and dematiaceous fungi. J. Clin. Microbial 39(3), 954–958 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Pfizer, Inc. Vfind® (voriconazole) package insert. New York, NY, USA (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, et al Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J. Med 347(6), 408–415 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Demonstrates a mortality benefit in thegroup of patients treated with voriconazole compared to AmBd.
   Google Scholar
• Walsh TJ, Pappas P, Winston DJ, et al Voriconazole compared with liposomal amphotericin B for empirical antifungal therapy in patients with neutropenia and persistent fever. N Engl J. Med 346(4), 225–234 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Hollis RJ, Jones RN, Diekema DJ. In vitro activities of ravuconazole and voriconazole compared with those of four approved systemic antifungal agents against 6970 clinical isolates of Candida spp. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 46(6), 1723–1727 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• •An in vitro study of the activity of new azoles against a wide variety of Candida spp.
   Google Scholar
• Ally R, Schurmann D, Kreisel W, et al A randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, multicenter trial of voriconazole and fluconazole in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in immunocompromised patients. Clin. Infict. Dis. 33(9), 1447–1454 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Troke PF, Espinel-Ingtoff A, Johnson EM, Schlamm H. Susceptibility of moulds from two open, randomized, comparative studies of the efficacy and safety of voriconazole (VORI) versus amphotericin B (AMB) in the treatment of acute invasive aspergillosis (AU) in immunocompromised patients. Proceedings of the 41st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. IL, USA, 16–19 December (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Potoski BA, Brown J. The safety of voriconazole. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(10), 1273–1275 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherpbier HJ, Hilhorst MI, Kuijpers TW Liver failure in a child receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy and voriconazole. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(6), 828–830 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning DW, Ribaud P, Milpied N, et al Efficacy and safety of voriconazole in the treatment of acute invasive aspergillosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34(5), 563–571 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ••Open-label study of voriconazole in IA.
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg RN, Anstead G, Herbrecht R, et al Posaconazole experience in the treatment of zygomycosis. Proceedings of the 43rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. IL, USA, 14–17 September 2003.
   Google Scholar
• •Details the potential utility of posaconazole in zygomycosis.
   Google Scholar
• Capilla J, Yustes C, Mayayo E, et al Efficacy of albaconazole (UR-9825) in treatment of disseminated Scedosporium prolificans infection in rabbits. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother. 47(6), 1948–1951 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Hoang A. Caspofungin acetate: an antifungal agent. Am. J. Health-Syst. Pharm. 58(13), 1206–1214 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Merck and Co. Cancidas® (caspofungin acetate) package insert. Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Maertens J, Raad I, Petrikkos G, et al Update of the multicenter noncomparative study of caspofungin (CAS) in adults with invasive aspergillosis (IA) refractor (R) or intolerant (I) to other antifungal agents: analysis of 90 patients. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. CA, USA, 27–30 September (2002).
   Google Scholar
• ••Details the data-to-date of the study thatled to caspofungin's approval for IA.
   Google Scholar
• Villanueva A, Arathoon EG, Gotuzzo E, et al A randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus amphotericin for the treatment of candidal esophagitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(9), 1529–1535 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villanueva A, Gotuzzo E, Arathoon EG, et al A randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Am. J. Med 113(4), 294–299 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, et al Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J. Med 347(25), 2020–2029 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •• Demonstrates the equivalence of caspofungin to amphotericin B in the treatment of candidiasis in non-neutropenic patients.
   Google Scholar
• Mermel LA, Farr BM, Sherertz RJ, et al Guidelines for the management of intravascular catheter-related infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32(9), 1249–1272 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhn DM, George T, ChandraJ, Mukherjee PK, Ghannoum MA. Antifungal susceptibility of Candida biofilms: unique efficacy of amphotericin B lipid formulations and echinocandins. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 46(6), 1773–1780 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Bachmann SP, VanDeWalle K, Ramage G, et al In vitro activity of caspofungin against Candida albicans biofilms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 46(11), 3591–3596 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Schinabeck MK, Chandra J, Mukherjee PK, Ghannoum MA. Characterization and susceptibility of echinocandin resistant Candida albicans biofilms. Proceedings of the 43rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherap. IL, USA, 14–17 September 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Sable CA, Nguyen BY, Chodakewitz JA, DiNubile MJ. Safety and tolerability of caspofungin acetate in the treatment of fungal infections. Transpl Infect. Dis. 4(1), 25–30 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feldmesser M, Kress Y, Mednick A, Casadevall A. The effect of the echinocandin analogue caspofungin on cell wall &can synthesis by Gyptococcus neoformans. J. Infect. Dis. 182(6), 1791–1795 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espinel-Ingroff A. Comparison of In vitro activities of the new triazole 5CH56592 and the echinocandins MK-0991 (L-743,872) and LY-303366 against opportunistic filamentous and dimorphic fungi and yeasts. J. Clin. Microbial 36(10), 2950–2956 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Graybill JR. The echinocandins, first novel class of antifungals in two decades: will they live up to their promise? Int. J. Clin. Pratt. 55(9), 633–638 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bennett JE, Dismukes WE, Duma RJ, et al A comparison of amphotericin B alone and combined with flucytosine in the treatment of cryptoccal meningitis. N Engl J Med. 301(3), 126–131 (1979).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugar AM. Use of amphotericin B with azole antifungal drugs: what are we doing? Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39(9), 1907–1912 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rex JH, Pappas PG, Karchmer AW, et al A randomized and blinded multicenter trial of high-dose fluconazole plus placebo versus fluconazole plus amphotericin B as therapy for candidemia and its consequences in nonneutropenic subjects. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(10), 1221–1228 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Large clinical trial showing possible benefit and no antagonism with combination of fluconazole and amphotericin B in candidemia.
   Google Scholar
• Denning DW, Stevens DA. Efficacy of cilofungin alone and in combination with amphotericin B in a murine model of disseminated aspergillosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35(7), 1329–1333 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkpatrick WR, Perea S, Coco BJ, Patterson TF. Efficacy of caspofungin alone and in combination with voriconazole in a Guinea-pig model of invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46(8), 2564–2568 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petraitis V, Petraitiene R, Sarafandi AA, et al Combination therapy in treatment of experimental pulmonary aspergillosis: synergistic interaction between an antifungal triazole and an echinocandin. J. Infect. Dis. 187(12), 1834–1843 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Interesting study showing significant benefit to combination therapy in a rabbit model of aspergillosis.
   Google Scholar
• Kontoyiannis DP, Hachem R, Lewis RE, et al Efficacy and safety of the caspofungin/liposomal amphotericin B (CAS/LipoAMB) combination in possible or documented invasive aspergillosis (IA) in patients (Pts) in hematological malignancies. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. CA, USA, 27–30 September 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Rex JH, Pfaller MA, Walsh TJ, et al Antifungal susceptibility testing: practical aspects and current challenges. Clin. Microbial Rev. 14(4), 643–658 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rex JH, Pfaller MA. Has antifungal susceptibility testing come of age? Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(8), 982–989 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• •Useful review of the current state of antifungal susceptibility testing.
   Google Scholar
• Wheat J, Sarosi G, McKinsey D, et al Practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(4), 688–695 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman SW, Bradsher RW Jr, Campbell GD Jr, Pappas PG, Kauffman CA. Practice guidelines for the management of patients with blastomycosis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(4), 679–683 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kauffman CA, Hajjeh R, Chapman SW Practice guidelines for the management of patients with sporotrichosis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(4), 684–687 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walsh TJ, Sable C, Depauw B, et al A randomized, double-blind, multicenter trial of caspofungin vs. liposomal amphotericin B for empirical antifungal therapy of persistently febrile neutropenic patients. Proceedings of the 43rd Interscience Confirence on Antimicrobial Agents-and Chemotherapy IL, USA, 14–17 September 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Messer SA, Hollis RJ, Jones RN. In vitro activities of caspofungin compared with those of fluconazole and itraconazole against 3,959 clinical isolates of Candida spp., including 157 fluconazole-resistant isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47(3), 1068–1071 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Moore CB, Denning DW. Tolerance and fungicidality in vitro of caspofungin, micafungin and anidulafungin against Candida guilliermondii. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy CA, USA, 27–30 September (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Graybill JR, Bocanegra R, Najvar LK, Hernandez S, Larsen RA. Addition of caspofungin to fluconazole does not improve outcome in murine candidiasis. Antimicrob. Agents-Chemother. 47(7), 2373–2375 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roling EE, Klepser ME, Wasson A, et al Antifungal activities of fluconazole, caspofungin (MK0991) and anidulafungin (LY 303366) alone and in combination against Candida spp. and Gytococcus neoformans via time-kill methods. Diagn. Microbial Infect. Dis. 43(1), 13–17 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• WaMrep TW, Keiser P, Ware A, et al Failure of intermittent caspofungin therapy to treat fluconazole-resistant mucocutaneous Candida despite apparent in vitro susceptibility. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy CA, USA, 27–30 September (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Edlind TD, Katiyar SK. Caspofungin-tolerant mutants of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata. Proceedings of the 43rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy IL, USA, 14–17 September (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Kartsonis N, DiNubile MJ, Bartizal K, et al Efficacy of caspofungin in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis resistant to fluconazole. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 31(2), 183–187 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laverdiere M, Hoban D, Restieri C, Habel F. In vitro activity of three new triazoles and one echinocandin against Candida bloodstream isolates from cancer patients. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 50(1), 119–123 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Eichel M, Just-Nubling G, Helm EB, Stille W. Itraconazole suspension in the treatment of HIV-infected patients with fluconazole-resistant oropharyngeal candidiasis and esophagitis. Mycoses 39\(Suppl. 6) 102–106 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cuenca-Estrella M, Diaz-Guerra TM, Mellado E, Monzon A, Rodriguez-Tudela JL. Comparative in vitro activity of voriconazole and itraconazole against fluconazole-susceptible and fluconazole-resistant clinical isolates of Candida species from Spain. Eur. J. Clin. Microbial Infect. Dis. 18(6), 432–435 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Kauffman CA, Zarins LT In vitro activity of voriconazole against Candida species. Diagn. Microbial Infect. Dis. 31(1), 297–300 (1998).
   Google Scholar
• Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Messer SA, et al. In vitro activities of voriconazole, posaconazole and four licensed systemic antifungal agents against Candida species infrequently isolated from blood. J. Clin. Microbial 41(1), 78–83 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Oude Lashof AM, Kullberg BJ, Rex JH. Voriconazole salvage treatment of invasive candidiasis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbial. Infect. Dis. 22(11), 651–655 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eucker J, Sezer O, Graf B, Possinger K. Mucormycoses. Mycoses 44(7), 253–260 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Drew RH, Palmer SM, Davis R, Perfect JR. Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) in lung transplant recipients (LTR) receiving prophylactic aerosolized amphotericin B (aAmB) formulations. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. CA, USA, 27–30 September (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Herbrecht R, Letscher-Bru V, Oprea C, et al Aspergillus galactomannan detection in the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in cancer patients. J. Clin. Oncol 20(7), 1898–1906 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kami M, Fukui T, Ogawa S, et al Use of real-time PCR on blood samples for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(9), 1504–1512 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinker S. ORs closed after Aspergillus discovered at Royal Vic. Can. Med Assoc. J. 164(9), 1333 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Anaissie EJ, Costa SF. Nosocomial aspergillosis is waterborne. Clin. Infict. Dis. 33(9), 1546–1548 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anaissie EJ, Stratton SL, Dignani MC, et al Pathogenic Aspergillus species recovered from a hospital water system: a 3-year prospective study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34(6), 780–789 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Linden PK, Coley K, Fontes P, Fung JJ, Kusne S. Invasive aspergillosis in liver transplant recipients: outcome comparison of therapy with amphotericin B lipid complex and a historical cohort treated with conventional amphotericin B. Clin. Infict. Dis. 37(1), 17–25 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• •A historical-control study that compares ABLC and AmBd use for IA in the liver transplant population.
   Google Scholar
• Caillot D, Bassaris H, McGeer A, et al Intravenous itraconazole followed by oral itraconazole in the treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with hematologic malignancies, chronic granulomatous disease or AIDS. Clin. Infict. Dis. 33(8), e83—e90 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Gentina T, De Botton S, Alfandari S, Delomez J, Jaillard S, Leroy O. Combination antifungals for treatment of pulmonary invasive aspergillosis (IS) refractory to amphotericin B (AmB) in leukaemia patients. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents-and Chemotherapy CA, USA, 27–30 September 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Kontoyiannis DP, Lewis RE, May GS, Albert ND, Raad II. Sequential exposure of A. fain* gatus to itraconazole (ITRA) and caspofungin (CAS): evidence of enhanced in vitro activity of this combination. Proceedings of the 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents-and Chemotherapy CA, USA, 27–30 September 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Boutati El, Anaissie EJ. Fusarium, a significant emerging pathogen in patients with hematologic malignancy: 10 years experience at a cancer center and implications for management. Blood 90(3), 999–1008 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Husain S, Alexander BD, Munoz P, et al Opportunistic mycelial fungal infections in organ transplant recipients: emerging importance of non-Aspergillus mycelial fungi. Clin. Infict. Dis. 37(2), 221–229 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• •Describes the shifting fungal spectrum in the solid-organ transplant population.
   Google Scholar
• Gallagher JC, Dodds Ashley ES, Drew RH, Perfect JR. Antifungal pharmacotherapy for invasive mould infections. Expert Opin. Pharmacother 4(2), 147–164 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nucci M, Anaissie E. Cutaneous infection by Fusarium species in healthy and immunocompromised hosts: implications for diagnosis and management. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(8), 909–920 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musa MO, Al Eisa A, Halim M, etal. The spectrum of Fusarium infection in immunocompromised patients with haematological malignancies and in non-immunocompromised patients: a single institution experience over 10 years. Br. J. Haematol 108(3), 544–548 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Del Poeta M, Schell WA, Perfect JR. In vitro antifungal activity of pneumocandin L-743,872 against a variety of clinically important molds. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41(8), 1835–1836 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Apostolidis J, Bouzani M, Platsouka E, et al Resolution of fungemia due to Fusarium species in a patient with acute leukemia treated with caspofungin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(10), 1349–1350 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reis A, Sundmacher R, Tintelnot K, et al Successful treatment of ocular invasive mould infection (fusariosis) with the new antifungal agent voriconazole. Br. J. Ophthalmol 84(8), 932–933 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Consigny S, Dhedin N, Datry A, et al Successsful voriconazole treatment of disseminated fusarium infection in an immunocompromised patient. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(2), 311–313 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis D. Amphotericin B: spectrum and resistance. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 49\(Supp1.10) 7–10 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meletiadis J, Meis JF, Mouton JW, et al In vitro activities of new and conventional antifungal agents against clinical Scedqwrium isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 46(1), 62–68 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Tamm M, Malouf M, Glanville A. Pulmonary scedosporium infection following lung transplantation. Trampl Infect. Dis. 3(4), 189-194(2001).
   Google Scholar
• Safdar A, Papadopoulos EB, Young JW. Breakthrough Scedosporium apiospermum (Pseudallescheria boydiz) brain abscess during therapy for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis following high-risk allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 4(4), 212–217 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Steinbach WJ, Schell WA, Miller JL, Perfect JR. Scedozporium prolificans osteomyelitis in an immunocompetant child treated with voriconazole and caspofungin, as well as locally applied polyhexamethylene biguanide. J Clin. Microbial 41(8), 3981–3985 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Studahl M, Backteman T, Stalliammer F, Chryssanthou E, Petrini B. Bone and joint infection after traumatic implantation of Scedqwrim prolificans treated with voriconazole and surgery. Acta Paediactr. 92(8), 980–982 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Deresinski SC, Stevens DA. Caspofungin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(11), 1445–1457 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobon AM, Arango M, Fernandez D, Restrepo A. Mucormycosis (zygomycosis) in a heart—kidney transplant recipient: recovery after posaconazole therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(11), 1488–1491 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobs P, Wood L, Du TA, Esterhuizen K. Eradication of invasive mucormycosis-effectiveness of the Echinocandin FK463. Hematology. 8(2), 119–123 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Larkin JA, Montero JA. Efficacy and safety of amphotericin B lipid complex for zygomycosis. Infect. Med 20(4), 201–206 (2003).
   Google Scholar