Diagnosis of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection: is the demise of the Mantoux test imminent?

References

• World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing. WHO report 2005, Geneva, Switzerland (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. This is a Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This statement was endorsed by the Council of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. (IDSA), September 1999, and the sections of this statement. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161(4 Pt 2), S221–S247 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woldehanna S, Volmink J. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. CD000171 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Anonymous. Combining TB treatment with HIV testing and treatment could save lives of up to 500,000 HIV-positive Africans every year. Indian J. Med. Sci. 58, 407–409 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bock N, Reichman LB. Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS: epidemiological and clinical aspects (world perspective). Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 25, 337–344 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2003. US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, GA, USA (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Recommendations of the Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis. Screening for tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in high-risk populations. Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 44, 19–34 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine. Ending Neglect: the Elimination of Tuberculosis in the United States. National Academy Press. Washington, DC, USA (2000).
   Google Scholar
• von Pirquet C. Tuberkulindiagnose durch cutane impfung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 44, 644–645 (1907).
   Google Scholar
• von Pirquet C. Frequency of tuberculosis in childhood. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 52, 675–678 (1909).
   Google Scholar
• Edwards PQ, Edwards LB. Story of the tuberculin skin test from an epidemiologic viewpoint. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 81, 1–47 (1960).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Judson FN, Feldman RA. Mycobacterial skin tests in humans 12 years after infection with Mycobacterium marinum. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 109, 544–547 (1974).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Snider DE Jr. Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccinations and tuberculin skin tests. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 253, 3438–3439 (1985).
   Google Scholar
• Mori T, Sakatani M, Yamagishi F et al. Specific detection of tuberculosis infection: an interferon-γ-based assay using new antigens. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170, 59–64 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noshiro T, Satoh K, Sato H, Miura Y. Tuberculin survey of university students and postgraduates in 1998. Kekkaku 75, 363–368 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Diagnostic standards and classification of tuberculosis in adults and children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161, 1376–1395 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huebner RE, Schein MF, Bass JBJ. The tuberculin skin test. Clin. Infect. Dis. 17, 968–975 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bearman JE. A study of variability in tuberculin test reading. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 90, 913–919 (1964).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grabau JC, Hughes SE, Foster EA, Kearns CH, Klopf L. False-positive tuberculin skin tests in a state prison system. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 7, 93–97 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Villarino ME, Burman W, Wang YC et al. Comparable specificity of 2 commercial tuberculin reagents in persons at low risk for tuberculous infection. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 281, 169–171 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Kendig EL, Kirkpatrick BV, Carter WH, Hill FA, Caldwell K, Entwistle M. Under-reading of the tuberculin skin test reaction. Chest 113, 1175–1177 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fountain FF, Tolley E, Chrisman CR, Self TH. Isoniazid hepatotoxicity associated with treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: a 7-year evaluation from a public health tuberculosis clinic. Chest 28, 116–123 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Anonymous. Trends in tuberculosis – United States, 2004. Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 54, 245–249 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tuberculosis Section Health Protection Agency Centre for Infections London Annual report on tuberculosis cases reported in 2002 in England, Wales and Northern Ireland March (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Anonymous. Tuberculosis notifications in Australia 2003. Commun. Dis. Intell. 28(4), (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Kaufmann SHE. How can immunology contribute to the control of tuberculosis? Nature Rev. Immunol. 1, 20–30 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boom WH. The role of T-cell subsets in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Infect. Agents Dis. 5, 73–81 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ellner JJ. Review: the immune response in human tuberculosis–implications for tuberculosis control. J. Infect. Dis. 176, 1351–1359 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sodhi A, Gong J, Silva C, Qian D, Barnes PF. Clinical correlates of interferon γ production in patients with tuberculosis. Clin. Infect. Dis., 25, 617–620 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dlugovitzky D, Bay ML, Rateni L et al. In vitro synthesis of interferon-γ, interleukin-4, transforming growth factor-β and interleukin-1β by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from tuberculosis patients: relationship with the severity of pulmonary involvement. Scand. J. Immunol. 49, 210–217 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swaminathan S, Gong J, Zhang M et al. Cytokine production in children with tuberculosis infection and disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28, 1290–1293 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Houghton RL, Lodes MJ, Dillon DC et al. Use of multiepitope polyproteins in serodiagnosis of active tuberculosis. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9, 883–891 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andersen P, Munk ME, Pollock JM, Doherty TM. Specific immune-based diagnosis of tuberculosis. Lancet 356, 1099–1104 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geluk A, van Meijgaarden KE, Franken KL et al. Identification and characterization of the ESAT-6 homologue of Mycobacterium leprae and T-cell cross-reactivity with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 70, 2544–2548 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geluk A, van Meijgaarden KE, Franken KL et al. Immunological crossreactivity of the Mycobacterium leprae CFP-10 with its homologue in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Scand. J. Immunol. 59, 66–70 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young DB. Building a better tuberculosis vaccine. Nature Med. 9, 503–504 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Behr MA, Wilson MA, Gill WP et al. Comparative genomics of BCG vaccines by whole-genome DNA microarray. Science 284, 1520–1523 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brock I, Weldingh K, Leyten EM, Arend SM, Ravn P, Andersen P. Specific T-cell epitopes for immunoassay-based diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 2379–2387 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aagaard C, Brock I, Olsen A, Ottenhoff TH, Weldingh K, Andersen P. Mapping immune reactivity toward Rv2653 and Rv2654: two novel low-molecular-mass antigens found specifically in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. J. Infect. Dis. 189, 812–819 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arend SM, Geluk A, van Meijgaarden KE et al. Antigenic equivalence of human T-cell responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific RD1-encoded protein antigens ESAT-6 and culture filtrate protein 10 and to mixtures of synthetic peptides. Infect. Immun. 68, 3314–3321 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arend SM, Engelhard AC, Groot G et al. Tuberculin skin testing compared with T-cell responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific and nonspecific antigens for detection of latent infection in persons with recent tuberculosis contact. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 8, 1089–1096 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mustafa AS, Shaban FA, Al-Attiyah R et al. Human Th1 cell lines recognize the Mycobacterium tuberculosis ESAT-6 antigen and its peptides in association with frequently expressed HLA class II molecules. Scand. J. Immunol. 57, 125–134 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravn P, Demissie A, Eguale T et al. Human T-cell responses to the ESAT-6 antigen from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 179, 637–645 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vordermeier HM, Whelan A, Cockle PJ, Farrant L, Palmer N, Hewinson RG. Use of synthetic peptides derived from the antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10 for differential diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis in cattle. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 8, 571–578 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hill PC, Jackson-Sillah D, Fox A et al. ESAT-6/CFP-10 fusion protein and peptides for optimal diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by ex vivo enzyme-linked immunospot assay in the Gambia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 2070–2074 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Richeldi L, Ewer K, Losi M et al. T-cell-based tracking of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis infection after brief exposure. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170, 288–295 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier T, Eulenbruch HP, Wrighton-Smith P, Enders G, Regnath T. Sensitivity of a new commercial enzyme-linked immunospot assay (T SPOT-TB) for diagnosis of tuberculosis in clinical practice. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 24, 529–536 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lalvani A, Nagvenkar P, Udwadia Z et al. Enumeration of T-cells specific for RD1-encoded antigens suggests a high prevalence of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in healthy urban Indians. J. Infect. Dis. 183, 469–477 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lalvani A, Pathan AA, McShane H et al. Rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T-cells. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 163, 824–828 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewer K, Deeks J, Alvarez L et al. Comparison of T-cell-based assay with tuberculin skin test for diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a school tuberculosis outbreak. Lancet 361, 1168–1173 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood PR, Corner LA, Plackett P. Development of a simple, rapid in vitro cellular assay for bovine tuberculosis based on the production of gamma interferon. Res. Vet. Sci. 49, 46–49 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothel JS, Jones SL, Corner LA, Cox JC, Wood PR. A sandwich enzyme immunoassay for bovine interferon-γ and its use for the detection of tuberculosis in cattle. Aust. Vet. J. 67, 134–137 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pai M, Riley LW, Colford JM Jr. Interferon-γ assays in the immunodiagnosis of tuberculosis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect. Dis. 4, 761–776 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dheda K, Udwadia ZF, Huggett JF, Johnson MA, Rook GAW. Utility of the antigen-specific interferon-γ assay for the management of tuberculosis. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 11, 195–202 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman AL, Munkanta M, Wilkinson KA et al. Rapid detection of active and latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-positive individuals by enumeration of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific T-cells. AIDS 16, 2285–2293 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pathan AA, Wilkinson KA, Klenerman P et al. Direct ex vivo analysis of antigen-specific IFN-γ-secreting CD4 T-cells in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected individuals: associations with clinical disease state and effect of treatment. J. Immunol. 167, 5217–5225 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrara S, Vincenti D, Petrosillo N, Amicosante M, Girardi E, Goletti D. Use of a T-cell-based assay for monitoring efficacy of antituberculosis therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, 754–756 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shams H, Weis SE, Klucar P et al. Enzyme-linked immunospot and tuberculin skin testing to detect latent tuberculosis infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172, 1161–1168 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lyashchenko K, Whelan AO, Greenwald R et al. Association of tuberculin-boosted antibody responses with pathology and cell-mediated immunity in cattle vaccinated with Mycobacterium bovis BCG and infected with M. bovis. Infect. Immun. 72, 2462–2467 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravn P, Munk ME, Andersen AB et al. Prospective evaluation of a whole-blood test using Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10 for diagnosis of active tuberculosis. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 12, 491–496 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kang YA, Lee HW, Yoon HI et al. Discrepancy between the tuberculin skin test and the whole-blood interferon γ assay for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in an intermediate tuberculosis-burden country. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 293, 2756–2761 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liebeschuetz S, Bamber S, Ewer K, Deeks J, Pathan AA, Lalvani A. Diagnosis of tuberculosis in South African children with a T-cell-based assay: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 364, 2196–2203 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brock I, Weldingh K, Lillebaek T, Follmann F, Andersen P. Comparison of tuberculin skin test and new specific blood test in tuberculosis contacts. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170, 65–69 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrara G, Losi M, Meacci M et al. Routine hospital use of a commercial whole blood interferon-γ assay for tuberculosis infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172, 631–635 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harada N, Mori T, Shishido S, Higuchi K, Sekiya Y. Usefulness of a novel diagnostic method of tuberculosis infection, QuantiFERON TB-2G, in an outbreak of tuberculosis. Kekkaku 79, 637–643 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harada N, Higuchi K, Sekiya Y, Rothel J, Kitoh T, Mori T. Basic characteristics of a novel diagnostic method (QuantiFERON TB-2G) for latent tuberculosis infection with the use of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific antigens, ESAT-6 and CFP-10. Kekkaku 79, 725–735 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pai M, Gokhale K, Joshi R et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in healthcare workers in rural India: comparison of a whole-blood interferon γ assay with tuberculin skin testing. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 293, 2746–2755 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravn P, Munk ME, Andersen AB et al. Reactivation of tuberculosis during immunosuppressive treatment in a patient with a positive QuantiFERON-RD1 test. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 36, 499–501 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funayama K, Tsujimoto A, Mori M et al. Usefulness of QuantiFERON® TB-2G in contact investigation of a tuberculosis outbreak in a university. Kekkaku 80, 527–534 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lalvani A, Pathan AA, Durkan H et al. Enhanced contact tracing and spatial tracking of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T-cells. Lancet 357, 2017–2021 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty TM, Demissie A, Olobo J et al. Immune responses to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific antigen ESAT-6 signal subclinical infection among contacts of tuberculosis patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40, 704–706 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert L, Rajbhandary S, Quails N et al. Costs of implementing and maintaining a tuberculin skin test program in hospitals and health departments. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 24, 814–820 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Richeldi L, Ewer K, Losi M et al. Early diagnosis of subclinical multi-drug resistant tuberculosis. Ann. Intern. Med. 140, 709–713 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar