Guiding diabetes screening and prevention: rationale, recommendations and remaining challenges

References

• Gregg EW, Li Y, Wang J, et al. Changes in diabetes-related complications in the United States, 1990-2010. N Engl J Med 2014;370:1514-23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National diabetes statistics report: estimates of diabetes and its burden in the United States, 2014. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, US; 2014; [Last accessed on 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 10 facts about diabetes. 2014; Available from: http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/diabetes/en/. [Last accessed on 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Zhang X, Saaddine JB, Chou CF, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in the United States, 2005-2008. JAMA 2010;304:649-56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geiss L, Engelgau M, Pogach L, et al. A national progress report on diabetes: successes and challenges. Diabetes Technol.Ther 2005;7:198-203
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burrows NR, Li Y, Geiss LS. Incidence of treatment for end-stage renal disease among individuals with diabetes in the U.S. continues to decline. Diabetes Care 2010;33:73-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association: Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2012. Diabetes Care 2013;36:1033-46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dall TM, Yang W, Halder P, et al. The economic burden of elevated blood glucose levels in 2012: diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, and prediabetes. Diabetes Care 2014;37:3172-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdul-Ghani MA, DeFronzo RA. Pathophysiology of prediabetes. Curr Diab Rep 2009;9:193-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahier J, Guiot Y, Goebbels RM, et al. Pancreatic beta-cell mass in European subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2008;10(Suppl 4):32-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein HC, Santaguida P, Raina P, et al. Annual incidence and relative risk of diabetes in people with various categories of dysglycemia: a systematic overview and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007;78:305-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowler WC, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, et al. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lancet 2009;374:1677-86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeboah J, Bertoni AG, Herrington DM, et al. Impaired fasting glucose and the risk of incident diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular events in an adult population: MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;58:140-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heianza Y, Hara S, Arase Y, et al. HbA1c 5.7-6.4% and impaired fasting plasma glucose for diagnosis of prediabetes and risk of progression to diabetes in Japan (TOPICS 3): a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet 2011;378:147-55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang X, Gregg EW, Williamson DF, et al. A1C level and future risk of diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care 2010;33:1665-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tirosh A, Shai I, Tekes-Manova D, et al. Normal fasting plasma glucose levels and type 2 diabetes in young men. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1454-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCance DR, Hanson RL, Charles MA, et al. Comparison of tests for glycated haemoglobin and fasting and two hour plasma glucose concentrations as diagnostic methods for diabetes. BMJ 1994;308:1323-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelgau MM, Thompson TJ, Herman WH, et al. Comparison of fasting and 2-hour glucose and HbA1c levels for diagnosing diabetes. Diagnostic criteria and performance revisited. Diabetes Care 1997;20:785-91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford ES, Zhao G, Li C. Pre-diabetes and the risk for cardiovascular disease: a systematic review of the evidence. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;55:1310-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rijkelijkhuizen JM, Nijpels G, Heine RJ, et al. High risk of cardiovascular mortality in individuals with impaired fasting glucose is explained by conversion to diabetes: the Hoorn study. Diabetes Care 2007;30:332-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saydah SH, Miret M, Sung J, et al. Postchallenge hyperglycemia and mortality in a national sample of U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 2001;24:1397-402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coutinho M, Gerstein HC, Wang Y, et al. The relationship between glucose and incident cardiovascular events. A metaregression analysis of published data from 20 studies of 95,783 individuals followed for 12.4 years. Diabetes Care 1999;22:233-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuller LH, Velentgas P, Barzilay J, et al. Diabetes mellitus: subclinical cardiovascular disease and risk of incident cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:823-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris MI, Eastman RC. Early detection of undiagnosed diabetes mellitus: a US perspective. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2000;16:230-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson TJ, Engelgau MM, Hegazy M, et al. The onset of NIDDM and its relationship to clinical diagnosis in Egyptian adults. Diabet Med 1996;13:337-40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UK Prospective Diabetes Study 6. Complications in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients and their association with different clinical and biochemical risk factors. Diabetes Res 1990;13:1-11
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Echouffo-Tcheugui JB, Ali MK, Griffin SJ, et al. Screening for type 2 diabetes and dysglycemia. Epidemiol Rev 2011;33:63-87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hypertension in Diabetes Study (HDS). I. Prevalence of hypertension in newly presenting type 2 diabetic patients and the association with risk factors for cardiovascular and diabetic complications. J Hypertens 1993;11:309-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spijkerman AM, Adriaanse MC, Dekker JM, et al. Diabetic patients detected by population-based stepwise screening already have a diabetic cardiovascular risk profile. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1784-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen PG, Gorter KJ, Stolk RP, et al. Randomised controlled trial of intensive multifactorial treatment for cardiovascular risk in patients with screen-detected type 2 diabetes: 1-year data from the ADDITION Netherlands study. Br J Gen Pract 2009;59:43-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plantinga LC, Crews DC, Coresh J, et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in US adults with undiagnosed diabetes or prediabetes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;5:673-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg EW, Gu Q, Williams D, et al. Prevalence of lower extremity diseases associated with normal glucose levels, impaired fasting glucose, and diabetes among U.S. adults aged 40 or older. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007;77:485-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia : report of a WHO/IDF consultation. 2006. Available from: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241594934_eng.pdf?ua=1 [Last accessed on 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association: (2) Classification and diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015;38(Suppl):S8-S16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Use of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Abbreviated report of a WHO consultation. 2011. Available from: http://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/diagnosis_diabetes2011/en/ [Accessed 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Rushforth NB, Miller M, Bennett PH. Fasting and two-hour post-load glucose levels for the diagnosis of diabetes. The relationship between glucose levels and complications of diabetes in the Pima Indians. Diabetologia 1979;16:373-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmet P, Whitehouse S. Bimodality of fasting and two-hour glucose tolerance distributions in a Micronesian population. Diabetes 1978;27:793-800
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tapp RJ, Tikellis G, Wong TY, et al. Longitudinal association of glucose metabolism with retinopathy: results from the Australian Diabetes Obesity and Lifestyle (AusDiab) study. Diabetes Care 2008;31:1349-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabanayagam C, Liew G, Tai ES, et al. Relationship between glycated haemoglobin and microvascular complications: is there a natural cut-off point for the diagnosis of diabetes? Diabetologia 2009;52:1279-89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal M, McMahan CA, Stern MP, et al. Evidence of bimodality of two hour plasma glucose concentrations in Mexican Americans: results from the San Antonio Heart study. J.Chronic.Dis 1985;38:5-16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Selvin E, Ning Y, Steffes MW, et al. Glycated hemoglobin and the risk of kidney disease and retinopathy in adults with and without diabetes. Diabetes 2011;60:298-305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Barrett-Connor EL, Blunt BA, et al. Visual impairment and retinopathy in people with normal glucose tolerance, impaired glucose tolerance, and newly diagnosed NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1991;14:914-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massin P, Lange C, Tichet J, et al. Hemoglobin A1c and fasting plasma glucose levels as predictors of retinopathy at 10 years: the French DESIR study. Arch Ophthalmol 2011;129:188-95
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Karadeniz S, Kir N, Yilmaz MT, et al. Alteration of visual function in impaired glucose tolerance. Eur.J.Ophthalmol 1996;6:59-62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singleton JR, Smith AG, Bromberg MB. Increased prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance in patients with painful sensory neuropathy. Diabetes Care 2001;24:1448-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tominaga M, Eguchi H, Manaka H, et al. Impaired glucose tolerance is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, but not impaired fasting glucose. The Funagata Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care 1999;22:920-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DECODE Study Group: Glucose tolerance and cardiovascular mortality: comparison of fasting and 2-hour diagnostic criteria. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:397-405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selvin E, Wattanakit K, Steffes MW, et al. HbA1c and peripheral arterial disease in diabetes: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Diabetes Care 2006;29:877-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drzewoski J, Czupryniak L. Concordance between fasting and 2-h post-glucose challenge criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and glucose intolerance in high risk individuals. Diabet Med 2001;18:29-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rathmann W, Kowall B, Tamayo T, et al. Hemoglobin A1c and glucose criteria identify different subjects as having type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and older populations: the KORA S4/F4 Study. Ann Med 2012;44:170-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mostafa SA, Khunti K, Srinivasan BT, et al. The potential impact and optimal cut-points of using glycated haemoglobin, HbA1c, to detect people with impaired glucose regulation in a UK multi-ethnic cohort. Diabetes Res.Clin.Pract 2010;90:100-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang P, Engelgau MM, Valdez R, et al. Efficient cutoff points for three screening tests for detecting undiagnosed diabetes and pre-diabetes: an economic analysis. Diabetes Care 2005;28:1321-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathan DM, Davidson MB, DeFronzo RA, et al. Impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance: implications for care. Diabetes Care 2007;30:753-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ko GT, Chan JC, Woo J, et al. The reproducibility and usefulness of the oral glucose tolerance test in screening for diabetes and other cardiovascular risk factors. Ann Clin Biochem 1998;35(Pt 1):62-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ealovega MW, Tabaei BP, Brandle M, et al. Opportunistic screening for diabetes in routine clinical practice. Diabetes Care 2004;27:9-12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind M, Tuomilehto J, Uusitupa M, et al. The association between HbA1c, fasting glucose, 1-hour glucose and 2-hour glucose during an oral glucose tolerance test and cardiovascular disease in individuals with elevated risk for diabetes. Plos One 2014;9:e109506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saudek CD, Herman WH, Sacks DB, et al. A new look at screening and diagnosing diabetes mellitus. J.Clin.Endocrinol.Metab 2008;93:2447-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou X, Pang Z, Gao W, et al. Performance of an A1C and fasting capillary blood glucose test for screening newly diagnosed diabetes and pre-diabetes defined by an oral glucose tolerance test in Qingdao, China. Diabetes Care 2010;33:545-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu Y, Liu W, Chen Y, et al. Combined use of fasting plasma glucose and glycated hemoglobin A1c in the screening of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance. Acta Diabetol 2010;47:231-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabaei BP, Engelgau MM, Herman WH. A multivariate logistic regression equation to screen for dysglycaemia: development and validation. Diabet Med 2005;22:599-605
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard JD, Rohrscheib M, Way JF, et al. Noninvasive type 2 diabetes screening: superior sensitivity to fasting plasma glucose and A1C. Diabetes Care 2007;30:1120-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tentolouris N, Lathouris P, Lontou S, et al. Screening for HbA1c-defined prediabetes and diabetes in an at-risk Greek population: performance comparison of random capillary glucose, the ADA diabetes risk test and skin fluorescence spectroscopy. Diabetes Res.Clin.Pract 2013;100:39-45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolffenbuttel BH, Herman WH, Gross JL, et al. Ethnic differences in glycemic markers in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2013;36:2931-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ackermann RT, Cheng YJ, Williamson DF, et al. Identifying adults at high risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease using hemoglobin A1c National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2006. Am J Prev Med 2011;40:11-17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomyo M, Sakane N, Kamae I, et al. Effects of sex, age and BMI on screening tests for impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2004;64:129-36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginde AA, Cagliero E, Nathan DM, et al. Value of risk stratification to increase the predictive validity of HbA1c in screening for undiagnosed diabetes in the US population. J Gen Intern Med 2008;23:1346-53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Preventive Services Task Force: Screening for type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2008;148:846-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Preventive Services Task Force. Draft Recommendation Statement. Abnormal Glucose and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Adults: Screening. 2014. Available from: http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementDraft/screening-for-abnormal-glucose-and-type-2-diabetes-mellitus [Accessed 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Pan XR, Li GW, Hu YH, et al. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care 1997;20:537-44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1343-50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002;346:393-403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratner RE, Christophi CA, Metzger BE, et al. Prevention of diabetes in women with a history of gestational diabetes: effects of metformin and lifestyle interventions. J.Clin.Endocrinol.Metab 2008;93:4774-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosaka K, Noda M, Kuzuya T. Prevention of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention: a Japanese trial in IGT males. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2005;67:152-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saito T, Watanabe M, Nishida J, et al. Lifestyle modification and prevention of type 2 diabetes in overweight Japanese with impaired fasting glucose levels: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2011;171:1352-60
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Mary S, et al. The Indian diabetes prevention programme shows that lifestyle modification and metformin prevent type 2 diabetes in Asian Indian subjects with impaired glucose tolerance (IDPP-1). Diabetologia 2006;49:289-97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diabetes prevention program research group. Long-term safety, tolerability, and weight loss associated with metformin in the diabetes prevention program outcomes study. Diabetes Care 2012;35:731-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. HbA1c as a predictor of diabetes and as an outcome in the diabetes prevention program: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Care 2015;38:51-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crandall JP, Edelstein SL, Aroda V, et al. Vitamin B12 Deficiency in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcome Study (DPPOS). Available from: http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/62/Supplement_1/A217.full.pdf [Accessed 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: the STOP-NIDDM randomised trial. Lancet 2002;359:2072-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: the STOP-NIDDM trial. JAMA 2003;290:486-94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijpels G, Boorsma W, Dekker JM, et al. A study of the effects of acarbose on glucose metabolism in patients predisposed to developing diabetes: the Dutch acarbose intervention study in persons with impaired glucose tolerance (DAISI). Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2008;24:611-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawamori R, Tajima N, Iwamoto Y, et al. Voglibose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomised, double-blind trial in Japanese individuals with impaired glucose tolerance. Lancet 2009;373:1607-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan TA, Xiang AH, Peters RK, et al. Preservation of pancreatic beta-cell function and prevention of type 2 diabetes by pharmacological treatment of insulin resistance in high-risk hispanic women. Diabetes 2002;51:2796-803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowler WC, Hamman RF, Edelstein SL, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes with troglitazone in the Diabetes Prevention Program. Diabetes 2005;54:1150-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein HC, Yusuf S, Bosch J, et al. Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006;368:1096-105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein HC, Mohan V, Avezum A, et al. Long-term effect of rosiglitazone and/or ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. Diabetologia 2011;54:487-95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeFronzo RA, Tripathy D, Schwenke DC, et al. Pioglitazone for diabetes prevention in impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1104-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zinman B, Harris SB, Neuman J, et al. Low-dose combination therapy with rosiglitazone and metformin to prevent type 2 diabetes mellitus (CANOE trial): a double-blind randomised controlled study. Lancet 2010;376:103-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosch J, Yusuf S, Gerstein HC, et al. Effect of ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1551-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMurray JJ, Holman RR, Haffner SM, et al. Effect of valsartan on the incidence of diabetes and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2010;362:1477-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torgerson JS, Hauptman J, Boldrin MN, et al. XENical in the prevention of diabetes in obese subjects (XENDOS) study: a randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients. Diabetes Care 2004;27:155-61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gadde KM, Allison DB, Ryan DH, et al. Effects of low-dose, controlled-release, phentermine plus topiramate combination on weight and associated comorbidities in overweight and obese adults (CONQUER): a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2011;377:1341-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garvey WT, Ryan DH, Henry R, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes in subjects with prediabetes and metabolic syndrome treated with phentermine and topiramate extended release. Diabetes Care 2014;37:912-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portero McLellan KC, Wyne K, Villagomez ET, et al. Therapeutic interventions to reduce the risk of progression from prediabetes to type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2014;10:173-88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang F, Tang X, Cao H, et al. Impaired secretion of total glucagon-like peptide-1 in people with impaired fasting glucose combined impaired glucose tolerance. Int J Med Sci 2012;9:574-81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne MM, Gliem K, Wank U, et al. Glucagon-like peptide 1 improves the ability of the beta-cell to sense and respond to glucose in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetes 1998;47:1259-65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstock J, Foley JE, Rendell M, et al. Effects of the dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitor vildagliptin on incretin hormones, islet function, and postprandial glycemia in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care 2008;31:30-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstock J, Klaff LJ, Schwartz S, et al. Effects of exenatide and lifestyle modification on body weight and glucose tolerance in obese subjects with and without pre-diabetes. Diabetes Care 2010;33:1173-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Astrup A, Rossner S, Van GL, et al. Effects of liraglutide in the treatment of obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 2009;374:1606-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Astrup A, Carraro R, Finer N, et al. Safety, tolerability and sustained weight loss over 2 years with the once-daily human GLP-1 analog, liraglutide. Int J Obes (Lond) 2012;36:843-54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim SH, Abbasi F, Lamendola C, et al. Benefits of liraglutide treatment in overweight and obese older individuals with prediabetes. Diabetes Care 2013;36:3276-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim SH, Liu A, Ariel D, et al. Pancreatic beta cell function following liraglutide-augmented weight loss in individuals with prediabetes: analysis of a randomised, placebo-controlled study. Diabetologia 2014;57:455-62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RISE Consortium. Restoring Insulin Secretion (RISE): design of studies of beta-cell preservation in prediabetes and early type 2 diabetes across the life span. Diabetes Care 2014;37:780-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlsson LM, Peltonen M, Ahlin S, et al. Bariatric surgery and prevention of type 2 diabetes in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med 2012;367:695-704
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kashyap SR, Bhatt DL, Schauer PR. Bariatric surgery vs. advanced practice medical management in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: rationale and design of the Surgical Therapy And Medications Potentially Eradicate Diabetes Efficiently trial (STAMPEDE). Diabetes Obes Metab 2010;12:452-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schauer PR, Bhatt DL, Kirwan JP, et al. Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy for diabetes–3-year outcomes. N Engl J Med 2014;370:2002-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein HC, Bosch J, Dagenais GR, et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med 2012;367:319-28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association: (5) Prevention or delay of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015;38(Suppl):S31-2
   Google Scholar
• International Expert Committee report on the role of the A1C assay in the diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1327-34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindstrom J, Peltonen M, Eriksson JG, et al. Improved lifestyle and decreased diabetes risk over 13 years: long-term follow-up of the randomised Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study (DPS). Diabetologia 2013;56:284-93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perreault L, Temprosa M, Mather KJ, et al. Regression from prediabetes to normal glucose regulation is associated with reduction in cardiovascular risk: results from the Diabetes Prevention Program outcomes study. Diabetes Care 2014;37:2622-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gong Q, Gregg EW, Wang J, et al. Long-term effects of a randomised trial of a 6-year lifestyle intervention in impaired glucose tolerance on diabetes-related microvascular complications: the China Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Outcome Study. Diabetologia 2011;54:300-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li G, Zhang P, Wang J, et al. Cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality, and diabetes incidence after lifestyle intervention for people with impaired glucose tolerance in the Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Study: a 23-year follow-up study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2014;2:474-80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. The 10-year cost-effectiveness of lifestyle intervention or metformin for diabetes prevention: an intent-to-treat analysis of the DPP/DPPOS. Diabetes Care 2012;35:723-30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg EW, Boyle JP, Thompson TJ, et al. Modeling the impact of prevention policies on future diabetes prevalence in the United States: 2010-2030. Popul .Health Metr 2013;11:18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backholer K, Peeters A, Herman WH, et al. Diabetes prevention and treatment strategies: are we doing enough? Diabetes Care 2013;36:2714-19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson M, Jones R, Freeman C, et al. Can diabetes prevention programmes be translated effectively into real-world settings and still deliver improved outcomes? A synthesis of evidence. Diabet Med 2013;30:3-15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duijzer G, Haveman-Nies A, Jansen SC, et al. SLIMMER: a randomised controlled trial of diabetes prevention in Dutch primary health care: design and methods for process, effect, and economic evaluation. BMC Public Health 2014;14:602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray LJ, Khunti K, Williams S, et al. Let’s prevent diabetes: study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial of an educational intervention in a multi-ethnic UK population with screen detected impaired glucose regulation. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2012;11:56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardona-Morrell M, Rychetnik L, Morrell SL, et al. Reduction of diabetes risk in routine clinical practice: are physical activity and nutrition interventions feasible and are the outcomes from reference trials replicable? A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 2010;10:653
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parikh P, Simon EP, Fei K, et al. Results of a pilot diabetes prevention intervention in East Harlem, New York City: Project HEED. Am J Public Health 2010;100(Suppl 1):S232-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harvey I, Schulz A, Israel B, et al. The Healthy Connections project: a community-based participatory research project involving women at risk for diabetes and hypertension. Prog Community Health Partnersh 2009;3:287-300
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Atkinson MJ, Boltri JM, Davis-Smith M, et al. A qualitative inquiry into the community and programmatic dimensions associated with successful implementation of church-based diabetes prevention programs. J Public Health Manag Pract 2009;15:264-73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ackermann RT, Finch EA, Caffrey HM, et al. Long-term effects of a community-based lifestyle intervention to prevent type 2 diabetes: the DEPLOY extension pilot study. Chronic Illn 2011;7:279-90
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Philis-Tsimikas A, Gallo LC. Implementing community-based diabetes programs: the scripps whittier diabetes institute experience. Curr Diab Rep 2014;14:462
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finnish Diabetes Association. Programme for the Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes in Finland 2003-2010. 2003; Available from: http://www.diabetes.fi/files/1108/Programme_for_the_Prevention_of_Type_2_Diabetes_in_Finland_2003-2010.pdf [Accessed 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Diabetes UK. Prevention and early diagnosis of type 2 diabetes: the nhs health check programme let’s get it right. 2012; Available from: http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/living/greencarts.shtml [ Accessed 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Albright AL, Gregg EW. Preventing type 2 diabetes in communities across the U.S.: the National Diabetes Prevention Program. Am J Prev Med 2013;44:S346-51
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The National Diabetes Prevention Program is a translational effort and partnership to further diabetes screening and prevention in communities across the U.S. Casagrande SS, Cowie CC, Genuth SM. Self-reported prevalence of diabetes screening in the U.S., 2005-2010. Am J Prev Med 2014;47:780-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waugh NR, Shyangdan D, Taylor-Phillips S, et al. Screening for type 2 diabetes: a short report for the National Screening Committee. Health Technol Assess 2013;17:1-90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eborall H, Stone M, Aujla N, et al. Influences on the uptake of diabetes screening: a qualitative study in primary care. Br J Gen Pract 2012;62:e204-11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb DR, Gray LJ, Khunti K, et al. Screening for diabetes using an oral glucose tolerance test within a western multi-ethnic population identifies modifiable cardiovascular risk: the ADDITION-Leicester study. Diabetologia 2011;54:2237-46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aujla N, Stone MA, Taub N, et al. Identifying people with type 2 diabetes and those at risk: lessons from the measure your waist (MY-WAIST) mixed-methods study in UK primary care. Prim Care Diabetes 2013;7:261-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruge T, Nystrom L, Lindahl B, et al. Recruiting high-risk individuals to a diabetes prevention program: how hard can it be? Diabetes Care 2007;30:e61
   Google Scholar
• Sargeant LA, Simmons RK, Barling RS, et al. Who attends a UK diabetes screening programme? Findings from the ADDITION-Cambridge study. Diabet Med 2010;27:995-1003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson G, Martin JE, Timoshanko A. Preventing type 2 diabetes: scaling up to create a prevention system. Med J Aust 2015;202:24-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oldenburg B, Absetz P, Dunbar JA, et al. The spread and uptake of diabetes prevention programs around the world: a case study from Finland and Australia. Transl Behav Med 2011;1:270-82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geiss LS, James C, Gregg EW, et al. Diabetes risk reduction behaviors among U.S. adults with prediabetes. Am J Prev Med 2010;38:403-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hivert MF, Warner AS, Shrader P, et al. Diabetes risk perception and intention to adopt healthy lifest yles among primary care patients. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1820-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmela SM, Vahasarja KA, Villberg JJ, et al. Perceiving need for lifestyle counseling: findings from Finnish individuals at high risk of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2012;35:239-41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edelman D, Edwards LJ, Olsen MK, et al. Screening for diabetes in an outpatient clinic population. J Gen Intern Med 2002;17:23-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson CA, Agarwal G, Nerenberg K. Validating the CANRISK prognostic model for assessing diabetes risk in Canada’s multi-ethnic population. Chronic Dis Inj Can 2011;32:19-31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saaristo T, Peltonen M, Lindstrom J, et al. Cross-sectional evaluation of the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score: a tool to identify undetected type 2 diabetes, abnormal glucose tolerance and metabolic syndrome. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2005;2:67-72
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang L, Zhang Z, Zhang et al. Evaluation of Finnish Diabetes Risk Score in screening undiagnosed diabetes and prediabetes among U.S. adults by gender and race: NHANES 1999-2010. PLoS One 2014;9:e97865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noble D, Mathur R, Dent T, et al. Risk models and scores for type 2 diabetes: systematic review. BMJ 2011;343:d7163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw J. Diagnosis of prediabetes. Med Clin North Am 2011;95:341-52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann DM, Carson AP, Shimbo D, et al. Impact of A1C screening criterion on the diagnosis of pre-diabetes among U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 2010;33:2190-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rathmann W, Martin S, Haastert B, et al. Performance of screening questionnaires and risk scores for undiagnosed diabetes: the KORA Survey 2000 Arch. Intern Med 2005;165:436-41
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glumer C, Vistisen D, Borch-Johnsen K, et al. Risk scores for type 2 diabetes can be applied in some populations but not all. Diabetes Care 2006;29:410-14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pajunen P, Peltonen M, Eriksson JG, et al. HbA(1c) in diagnosing and predicting Type 2 diabetes in impaired glucose tolerance: the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Diabet Med 2011;28:36-42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziemer DC, Kolm P, Foster JK, et al. Random plasma glucose in serendipitous screening for glucose intolerance: screening for impaired glucose tolerance study 2. J Gen Intern Med 2008;23:528-35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoerger TJ, Hicks KA, Sorensen SW, et al. Cost-effectiveness of screening for pre-diabetes among overweight and obese U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 2007;30:2874-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillies CL, Lambert PC, Abrams KR, et al. Different strategies for screening and prevention of type 2 diabetes in adults: cost effectiveness analysis. BMJ 2008;336:1180-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindstrom J, Tuomilehto J. The diabetes risk score: a practical tool to predict type 2 diabetes risk. Diabetes Care 2003;26:725-31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, et al. Evaluation of Finnish Diabetes Risk Score in screening undiagnosed diabetes and prediabetes among U.S. adults by genderand race: NHANES 1999-2010. PLos One. 2014;94:e97865
   Google Scholar
• Yang K, Lee YS, Chasens ER. Outcomes of health care providers’ recommendations for healthy lifestyle among U.S. adults with prediabetes. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2011;9:231-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermunt PW, Milder IE, Wielaard F, et al. Implementation of a lifestyle intervention for type 2 diabetes prevention in Dutch primary care: opportunities for intervention delivery. BMC Fam Pract 2012;13:79
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorsey R, Songer T. Lifestyle behaviors and physician advice for change among overweight and obese adults with prediabetes and diabetes in the United States, 2006. Prev Chronic Dis 2011;8:A132
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindstrom J, Louheranta A, Mannelin M, et al. The Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study (DPS): Lifestyle intervention and 3-year results on diet and physical activity. Diabetes Care 2003;26:3230-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP): description of lifestyle intervention. Diabetes Care 2002;25:2165-71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali MK, Echouffo-Tcheugui J, Williamson DF. How effective were lifestyle interventions in real-world settings that were modeled on the Diabetes Prevention Program? Health Aff (Millwood.) 2012;31:67-75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunkley AJ, Bodicoat DH, Greaves CJ, et al. Diabetes prevention in the real world: effectiveness of pragmatic lifestyle interventions for the prevention of type 2 diabetes and of the impact of adherence to guideline recommendations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2014;37:922-33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yates T, Davies M, Gorely T, et al. Effectiveness of a pragmatic education program designed to promote walking activity in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1404-10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laatikainen T, Dunbar JA, Chapman A, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention in an Australian primary health care setting: Greater Green Triangle (GGT) Diabetes Prevention Project. BMC Public Health 2007;7:249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz PE, Schwarz J, Schuppenies A, et al. Development of a diabetes prevention management program for clinical practice. Public Health Rep 2007;122:258-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidel MC, Powell RO, Zgibor JC, et al. Translating the Diabetes Prevention Program into an urban medically underserved community: a nonrandomized prospective intervention study. Diabetes Care 2008;31:684-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Absetz P, Oldenburg B, Hankonen N, et al. Type 2 diabetes prevention in the real world: three-year results of the GOAL lifestyle implementation trial. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1418-20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Ram J, et al. Effectiveness of mobile phone messaging in prevention of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle modification in men in India: a prospective, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2013;1:191-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong CK, Fung CS, Siu SC, et al. A short message service (SMS) intervention to prevent diabetes in Chinese professional drivers with pre-diabetes: a pilot single-blinded randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2013;102:158-66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick K, Norman GJ, Davila EP, et al. Outcomes of a 12-month technology-based intervention to promote weight loss in adolescents at risk for type 2 diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2013;7:759-70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ma J, Yank V, Xiao L, et al. Translating the diabetes prevention program lifestyle intervention for weight loss into primary care: a randomized trial. JAMA Intern.Med 2013;173:113-21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ackermann RT, Marrero DG. Adapting the diabetes prevention program lifestyle intervention for delivery in the community: the YMCA model. Diabetes Educ 2007;33(69):74-69-78
   Google Scholar
• Anderson J, Riley M, Everette TD. How proven primary prevention can stop diabetes. Clin Diabetes 2015;30:76-9
   Google Scholar
• H.R. 4124 “Diabetes Prevention Act of 2009”. 2009. Available from: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-111hr4124ih/pdf/BILLS-111hr4124ih.pdf [Last accessed on 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Schwarz PE, Gruhl U, Bornstein SR, et al. The European perspective on diabetes prevention: development and Implementation of A European Guideline and training standards for diabetes prevention (IMAGE). Diab Vasc Dis Res 2007;4:353-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lindstrom J, Neumann A, Sheppard KE, et al. Take action to prevent diabetes–the IMAGE toolkit for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in Europe. Horm Metab Res 2010;42(Suppl 1):S37-55
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pajunen P, Landgraf R, Muylle F, et al. Quality indicators for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in Europe–IMAGE. Horm Metab Res 2010;42(Suppl 1):S56-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz PE, Lindstrom J, Kissimova-Scarbeck K, et al. The European perspective of type 2 diabetes prevention: diabetes in Europe–prevention using lifestyle, physical activity and nutritional intervention (DE-PLAN) project. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2008;116:167-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa B, Barrio F, Cabre JJ, et al. Delaying progression to type 2 diabetes among high-risk Spanish individuals is feasible in real-life primary healthcare settings using intensive lifestyle intervention. Diabetologia 2012;55:1319-28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chirouze NA AJRP. The food trust and the fresh food financing initiative: eliminating “food deserts”. Philadelphia Social Innovations J 2010
   Google Scholar
• NYC Green Carts. 2015; Available from: http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/living/greencarts.shtml. [Last accessed on 16 February 2015]
   Google Scholar
• Porterfield DS, Reaves J, Konrad TR, et al. Assessing local health department performance in diabetes prevention and control–North Carolina, 2005. Prev Chronic Dis 2009;6:A87
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill JO, Galloway JM, Goley A, et al. Scientific statement: Socioecological determinants of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2013;36:2430-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine: Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention. Solving the Weight of the Nation. The National Academies Press; Washington, DC: 2012
   Google Scholar