175
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: from clinical recognition to treatment

&
Pages 59-79 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Angulo P. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. N. Engl. J. Med.346(16), 1221–1231 (2002).
  • Caldwell SH, Crespo DM. The spectrum expanded: cryptogenic cirrhosis and the natural history of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Hepatol.40(4), 578–584 (2004).
  • Sanyal AJ. AGA technical review on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology123(5), 1705–1725 (2002).
  • Zelman S. The liver in obesity. AMA Arch. Intern. Med.90(2), 141–156 (1952).
  • Catlin R. Liver dysfunction after intestinal bypass. JAMA236(15), 1693–1694 (1976).
  • McGill DB, Humpherys SR, Baggenstoss AH, Dickson ER. Cirrhosis and death after jejunoileal shunt. Gastroenterology63(5), 872–877 (1972).
  • Payne JH, Dewind LT, Commons RR. Metabolic observations in patients with jejunocolic shunts. Am. J. Surg.106, 273–289 (1963).
  • Adler M, Schaffner F. Fatty liver hepatitis and cirrhosis in obese patients. Am. J. Med.67(5), 811–816 (1979).
  • Nasrallah SM, Wills CE Jr, Galambos JT. Hepatic morphology in obesity. Dig. Dis. Sci.26(4), 325–327 (1981).
  • Thaler H. Relation of steatosis to cirrhosis. Clin. Gastroenterol.,4(2), 273–280 (1975).
  • Falchuk KR, Fiske SC, Haggitt RC, Federman M, Trey C. Pericentral hepatic fibrosis and intracellular hyalin in diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology78(3), 535–541 (1980).
  • Itoh S, Tsukada Y, Motomura Y, Ichinoe A. Five patients with nonalcoholic diabetic cirrhosis. Acta Hepatogastroenterol. (Stuttg.)26(2), 90–97 (1979).
  • Ludwig J, Viggiano TR, McGill DB, Oh BJ. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: Mayo Clinic experiences with a hitherto unnamed disease. Mayo Clin. Proc.55(7), 434–438 (1980).
  • Cairns SR, Peters TJ. Biochemical analysis of hepatic lipid in alcoholic and diabetic and control subjects. Clin. Sci. (Lond.)65(6), 645–652 (1983).
  • Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Caldwell SH. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: summary of an AASLD Single Topic Conference. Hepatology37(5), 1202–1219 (2003).
  • Clark JM, Brancati FL, Diehl AM. The prevalence and etiology of elevated aminotransferase levels in the United States. Am. J. Gastroenterol.98(5), 960–967 (2003).
  • Daniel S, Ben Menachem T, Vasudevan G, Ma CK, Blumenkehl M. Prospective evaluation of unexplained chronic liver transaminase abnormalities in asymptomatic and symptomatic patients. Am. J. Gastroenterol.94(10), 3010–3014 (1999).
  • Tsochatzis E, Papatheodoridis GV, Manesis EK et al. Hepatic steatosis in genotype 4 chronic hepatitis C is mainly because of metabolic factors. Am. J. Gastroenterol.102(3), 634–641 (2007).
  • Skelly MM, James PD, Ryder SD. Findings on liver biopsy to investigate abnormal liver function tests in the absence of diagnostic serology. J. Hepatol.35(2), 195–199 (2001).
  • Mofrad P, Contos MJ, Haque M et al. Clinical and histologic spectrum of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease associated with normal ALT values. Hepatology37(6), 1286–1292 (2003).
  • Bacon BR, Farahvash MJ, Janney CG, Neuschwander-Tetri BA. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: an expanded clinical entity. Gastroenterology107(4), 1103–1109 (1994).
  • Falck-Ytter Y, Younossi ZM, Marchesini G, McCullough AJ. Clinical features and natural history of nonalcoholic steatosis syndromes. Semin. Liver Dis.21(1), 17–26 (2001).
  • Younossi ZM, Diehl AM, Ong JP. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: an agenda for clinical research. Hepatology35(4), 746–752 (2002).
  • Szczepaniak LS, Nurenberg P, Leonard D et al. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure hepatic triglyceride content: prevalence of hepatic steatosis in the general population. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.288(2), E462–E468 (2005).
  • Saadeh S, Younossi ZM, Remer EM et al. The utility of radiological imaging in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology123(3), 745–750 (2002).
  • Hilden M, Christoffersen P, Juhl E, Dalgaard JB. Liver histology in a ‘normal’ population – examinations of 503 consecutive fatal traffic casualties. Scand. J. Gastroenterol.12(5), 593–597 (1977).
  • Ruhl CE, Everhart JE. Determinants of the association of overweight with elevated serum alanine aminotransferase activity in the United States. Gastroenterology124(1), 71–79 (2003).
  • Bellentani S, Saccoccio G, Masutti F et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for hepatic steatosis in Northern Italy. Ann. Intern. Med.132(2), 112–117 (2000).
  • Marcos A, Fisher RA, Ham JM et al. Selection and outcome of living donors for adult to adult right lobe transplantation. Transplantation69(11), 2410–2415 (2000).
  • Wanless IR, Lentz JS. Fatty liver hepatitis (steatohepatitis) and obesity: an autopsy study with analysis of risk factors. Hepatology12(5), 1106–1110 (1990).
  • Machado M, Marques-Vidal P, Cortez-Pinto H. Hepatic histology in obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery. J. Hepatol.45(4), 600–606 (2006).
  • Noguchi H, Tazawa Y, Nishinomiya F, Takada G. The relationship between serum transaminase activities and fatty liver in children with simple obesity. Acta Paediatr. Jpn.37(5), 621–625 (1995).
  • Tominaga K, Kurata JH, Chen YK et al. Prevalence of fatty liver in Japanese children and relationship to obesity. An epidemiological ultrasonographic survey. Dig. Dis. Sci.40(9), 2002–2009 (1995).
  • Lobstein T, Baur L, Uauy R. Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. Obes. Rev.5(Suppl. ), 4–104 (2004).
  • Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999–2004. JAMA295(13), 1549–1555 (2006).
  • James PT, Rigby N, Leach R. The obesity epidemic, metabolic syndrome and future prevention strategies. Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Prev. Rehabil.11(1), 3–8 (2004).
  • Cecil JE, Watt P, Murrie IS et al. Childhood obesity and socioeconomic status: a novel role for height growth limitation. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.), 29–10), 1199–1203 (2005).
  • Willms JD, Tremblay MS, Katzmarzyk PT. Geographic and demographic variation in the prevalence of overweight Canadian children. Obes. Res.11(5), 668–673 (2003).
  • Magarey AM, Daniels LA, Boulton TJ. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in Australian children and adolescents: reassessment of 1985 and 1995 data against new standard international definitions. Med. J. Aust.,174(11) 561–564 (2001).
  • Rashid M, Roberts EA. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in children. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.30(1), 48–53 (2000).
  • Franzese A, Vajro P, Argenziano A et al. Liver involvement in obese children. Ultrasonography and liver enzyme levels at diagnosis and during follow-up in an Italian population. Dig. Dis. Sci.42(7), 1428–1432 (1997).
  • Schwimmer JB, Deutsch R, Kahen T et al. Prevalence of fatty liver in children and adolescents. Pediatrics118(4), 1388–1393 (2006).
  • Teli MR, James OF, Burt AD, Bennett MK, Day CP. The natural history of nonalcoholic fatty liver: a follow-up study. Hepatology22(6), 1714–1719 (1995).
  • Powell EE, Cooksley WG, Hanson R et al. The natural history of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a follow-up study of forty-two patients for up to 21 years. Hepatology11(1), 74–80 (1990).
  • Lee RG. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a study of 49 patients. Hum. Pathol.20(6), 594–598 (1989).
  • Diehl AM, Goodman Z, Ishak KG. Alcohollike liver disease in nonalcoholics. A clinical and histologic comparison with alcohol-induced liver injury. Gastroenterology95(4), 1056–1062 (1988).
  • Matteoni CA, Younossi ZM, Gramlich T et al. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a spectrum of clinical and pathological severity. Gastroenterology116(6), 1413–1419 (1999).
  • el Hassan AY, Ibrahim EM, al Mulhim FA, Nabhan AA, Chammas MY. Fatty infiltration of the liver: analysis of prevalence, radiological and clinical features and influence on patient management. Br. J. Radiol.65(777), 774–778 (1992).
  • Nomura H, Kashiwagi S, Hayashi J et al. Prevalence of fatty liver in a general population of Okinawa, Japan. Jpn. J. Med.27(2), 142–149 (1988).
  • Nonomura A, Mizukami Y, Unoura M et al. Clinicopathologic study of alcohol-like liver disease in non-alcoholics; non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and fibrosis. Gastroenterol. Jpn.27(4), 521–528 (1992).
  • Omagari K, Kadokawa Y, Masuda J et al. Fatty liver in non-alcoholic non-overweight Japanese adults: incidence and clinical characteristics. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.17(10), 1098–1105 (2002).
  • Lonardo A, Bellini M, Tartoni P, Tondelli E. The bright liver syndrome. Prevalence and determinants of a “bright” liver echopattern. Ital. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.29(4), 351–356 (1997).
  • Kemmer N, McKinney K, Vuaim SY et al. High prevalence of NASH among Mexican American females with Type II diabetes melitus. Gastroenterology120, 117A (2001).
  • Browning JD, Szczepaniak LS, Dobbins R et al. Prevalence of hepatic steatosis in an urban population in the United States: impact of ethnicity. Hepatology40(6), 1387–1395 (2004).
  • Weston SR, Leyden W, Murphy R et al. Racial and ethnic distribution of nonalcoholic fatty liver in persons with newly diagnosed chronic liver disease. Hepatology41(2), 372–379 (2005).
  • Silverman JF, O’Brien KF, Long S et al. Liver pathology in morbidly obese patients with and without diabetes. Am. J. Gastroenterol.85(10), 1349–1355 (1990).
  • Dixon JB, Bhathal PS, O’Brien PE. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: predictors of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and liver fibrosis in the severely obese. Gastroenterology121(1), 91–100 (2001).
  • Eriksson S, Eriksson KF, Bondesson L. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in obesity: a reversible condition. Acta Med. Scand.220(1), 83–88 (1986).
  • Luyckx FH, Desaive C, Thiry A et al. Liver abnormalities in severely obese subjects: effect of drastic weight loss after gastroplasty. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.22(3), 222–226 (1998).
  • Park HS, Kim MW, Shin ES. Effect of weight control on hepatic abnormalities in obese patients with fatty liver. J. Korean Med. Sci.10(6), 414–421 (1995).
  • Ranlov I, Hardt F. Regression of liver steatosis following gastroplasty or gastric bypass for morbid obesity. Digestion47(4), 208–214 (1990).
  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kuczmarski RJ, Johnson CL. Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1960–1994. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.22(1), 39–47 (1998).
  • Angulo P, Keach JC, Batts KP, Lindor KD. Independent predictors of liver fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Hepatology30(6), 1356–1362 (1999).
  • Mendler MH, Turlin B, Moirand R et al. Insulin resistance-associated hepatic iron overload. Gastroenterology117(5), 1155–1163 (1999).
  • Gillum RF, Mussolino ME, Madans JH. Body fat distribution and hypertension incidence in women and men. The NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.22(2), 127–134 (1998).
  • Kral JG, Schaffner F, Pierson RN Jr, Wang J. Body fat topography as an independent predictor of fatty liver. Metabolism42(5), 548–551 (1993).
  • Targher G, Bertolini L, Padovani R et al. Relation of nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis to early carotid atherosclerosis in healthy men: role of visceral fat accumulation. Diabetes Care27(10), 2498–2500 (2004).
  • Villanova N, Moscatiello S, Ramilli S et al. Endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular risk profile in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology42(2), 473–480 (2005).
  • Volzke H, Robinson DM, Kleine V et al. Hepatic steatosis is associated with an increased risk of carotid atherosclerosis. World J. Gastroenterol.11(12), 1848–1853 (2005).
  • Akahoshi M, Amasaki Y, Soda M et al. Correlation between fatty liver and coronary risk factors: a population study of elderly men and women in Nagasaki, Japan. Hypertens. Res.24(4), 337–343 (2001).
  • Hornboll P, Olsen TS. Fatty changes in the liver: the relation to age, overweight and diabetes mellitus. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Immunol. Scand. (A)90(3), 199–205 (1982).
  • Hsieh SD, Yoshinaga H, Muto T, Sakurai Y. Regular physical activity and coronary risk factors in Japanese men. Circulation97(7), 661–665 (1998).
  • Ikai E, Honda R, Yamada Y. Serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase level and blood pressure in nondrinkers: a possible pathogenetic role of fatty liver in obesity-related hypertension. J. Hum. Hypertens.8(2), 95–100 (1994).
  • Ikai E, Ishizaki M, Suzuki Y et al. Association between hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinaemia as related to hypertension in alcohol consumers and obese people. J. Hum. Hypertens.9(2), 101–105 (1995).
  • Lonardo A. Fatty liver and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Where do we stand and where are we going? Dig .Dis.17(2), 80–89 (1999).
  • Marchesini G, Brizi M, Morselli-Labate AM et al. Association of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease with insulin resistance. Am. J. Med.107(5), 450–455 (1999).
  • Maruhama Y, Abe R, Okuguchi F et al. Interactions of obesity and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in familial hypertriglyceridemia. Diabetes27(6), 682–693 (1978).
  • Bonkovsky HL, Jawaid Q, Tortorelli K et al. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and iron: increased prevalence of mutations of the HFE gene in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. J. Hepatol.31(3), 421–429 (1999).
  • Clouston AD, Powell EE. Interaction of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with other liver diseases. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol.16(5), 767–781 (2002).
  • Asselah T, Rubbia-Brandt L, Marcellin P, Negro F. Steatosis in chronic hepatitis C: why does it really matter?Gut55(1), 123–130 (2006).
  • Rubbia-Brandt L, Quadri R, Abid K et al. Hepatocyte steatosis is a cytopathic effect of hepatitis C virus genotype 3. J. Hepatol.33(1), 106–115 (2000).
  • Moriya K, Yotsuyanagi H, Shintani Y et al. Hepatitis C virus core protein induces hepatic steatosis in transgenic mice. J. Gen. Virol.78 (Pt 7), 1527–1531 (1997).
  • Perlemuter G, Sabile A, Letteron P et al. Hepatitis C virus core protein inhibits microsomal triglyceride transfer protein activity and very low density lipoprotein secretion: a model of viral-related steatosis. FASEB J.16(2), 185–194 (2002).
  • Hourigan LF, Macdonald GA, Purdie D et al. Fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C correlates significantly with body mass index and steatosis. Hepatology29(4), 1215–1219 (1999).
  • Adinolfi LE, Gambardella M, Andreana A et al. Steatosis accelerates the progression of liver damage of chronic hepatitis C patients and correlates with specific HCV genotype and visceral obesity. Hepatology33(6), 1358–1364 (2001).
  • Westin J, Nordlinder H, Lagging M, Norkrans G, Wejstal R. Steatosis accelerates fibrosis development over time in hepatitis C virus genotype 3 infected patients. J. Hepatol.37(6), 837–842 (2002).
  • Manton ND, Lipsett J, Moore DJ et al. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in children and adolescents. Med. J. Aust.173(9), 476–479 (2000).
  • Itoh S, Yougel T, Kawagoe K. Comparison between nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and alcoholic hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol.82(7), 650–654 (1987).
  • Pantsari MW, Harrison SA. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease presenting with an isolated elevated alkaline phosphatase. J. Clin. Gastroenterol.40(7), 633–635 (2006).
  • Pinto HC, Baptista A, Camilo ME et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Clinicopathological comparison with alcoholic hepatitis in ambulatory and hospitalized patients. Dig. Dis. Sci.41(1), 172–179 (1996).
  • Tajiri K, Takenawa H, Yamaoka K et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis masquerading as autoimmune hepatitis. J. Clin. Gastroenterol.25(3), 538–540 (1997).
  • George DK, Goldwurm S, Macdonald GA et al. Increased hepatic iron concentration in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis is associated with increased fibrosis. Gastroenterology114(2), 311–318 (1998).
  • Ratziu V, Giral P, Charlotte F et al. Liver fibrosis in overweight patients. Gastroenterology118(6), 1117–1123 (2000).
  • Younossi ZM, Gramlich T, Bacon BR et al. Hepatic iron and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology30(4), 847–850 (1999).
  • Assy N, Schlesinger S, Hussein O. Elevated plasma protein C levels correlate with the presence of fatty liver (NASH and NAFLD). Gut54(5), 729 (2005).
  • Chitturi S, Abeygunasekera S, Farrell GC et al. NASH and insulin resistance: Insulin hypersecretion and specific association with the insulin resistance syndrome. Hepatology35(2), 373–379 (2002).
  • Fishbein M, Castro F, Cheruku S et al. Hepatic MRI for fat quantitation: its relationship to fat morphology, diagnosis, and ultrasound. J. Clin. Gastroenterol.39(7), 619–625 (2005).
  • Mottin CC, Moretto M, Padoin AV et al. The role of ultrasound in the diagnosis of hepatic steatosis in morbidly obese patients. Obes. Surg.14(5), 635–637 (2004).
  • Mitchell DG. Focal manifestations of diffuse liver disease at MR imaging. Radiology185(1), 1–11 (1992).
  • Debaere C, Rigauts H, Laukens P. Transient focal fatty liver infiltration mimicking liver metastasis. J. Belge Radiol., 81(4), 174–175 (1998).
  • Sheth SG, Gordon FD, Chopra S. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis [see comments] [published erratum appears in Ann.Intern. Med. 1997 Oct 15; 127(8 Pt 1):658]. Ann. Intern. Med.126(2), 137–145 (1997).
  • Van Ness MM, Diehl AM. Is liver biopsy useful in the evaluation of patients with chronically elevated liver enzymes? Ann. Intern. Med.111(6), 473–478 (1989).
  • Sorbi D, McGill DB, Thistle JL et al. An assessment of the role of liver biopsies in asymptomatic patients with chronic liver test abnormalities. Am. J. Gastroenterol.95(11), 3206–3210 (2000).
  • Baldridge AD, Perez-Atayde AR, Graeme-Cook F, Higgins L, Lavine JE. Idiopathic steatohepatitis in childhood: a multicenter retrospective study. J. Pediatr.127(5), 700–704 (1995).
  • Imbert-Bismut F, Ratziu V, Pieroni L et al. Biochemical markers of liver fibrosis in patients with hepatitis C virus infection: a prospective study. Lancet357(9262), 1069–1075 (2001).
  • Wai CT, Greenson JK, Fontana RJ et al. A simple noninvasive index can predict both significant fibrosis and cirrhosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology38(2), 518–526 (2003).
  • Ziol M, Handra-Luca A, Kettaneh A et al. Noninvasive assessment of liver fibrosis by measurement of stiffness in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology41(1), 48–54 (2005).
  • Gomez-Dominguez E, Mendoza J, Rubio S et al. Transient elastography: a valid alternative to biopsy in patients with chronic liver disease. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther.24(3), 513–518 (2006).
  • Foucher J, Chanteloup E, Vergniol J et al. Diagnosis of cirrhosis by transient elastography (FibroScan): a prospective study. Gut55(3), 403–408 (2006).
  • Castera L, Vergniol J, Foucher J et al. Prospective comparison of transient elastography, Fibrotest, APRI, and liver biopsy for the assessment of fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology128(2), 343–350 (2005).
  • Duarte IF, Stanley EG, Holmes E et al. Metabolic assessment of human liver transplants from biopsy samples at the donor and recipient stages using high-resolution magic angle spinning 1H NMR spectroscopy. Anal. Chem.77(17), 5570–5578 (2005).
  • Chitturi S, Farrell GC. Etiopathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Semin. Liver Dis.21(1), 27–41 (2001).
  • Tilg H, Diehl AM. Cytokines in alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. N. Engl. J. Med.343(20), 1467–1476 (2000).
  • Pagano G, Pacini G, Musso G et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome: further evidence for an etiologic association. Hepatology35(2), 367–372 (2002).
  • Marchesini G, Bugianesi E, Forlani G et al. Nonalcoholic fatty liver, steatohepatitis, and the metabolic syndrome. Hepatology37(4), 917–923 (2003).
  • Day CP, James OF. Steatohepatitis: a tale of two “hits”. Gastroenterology114(4), 842–845 (1998).
  • Esterbauer H, Schaur RJ, Zollner H. Chemistry and biochemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal, malonaldehyde and related aldehydes. Free Radic. Biol. Med.11(1), 81–128 (1991).
  • Osmundsen H, Bremer J, Pedersen JI. Metabolic aspects of peroxisomal β-oxidation. Biochim. Biophys. Acta1085(2), 141–158 (1991).
  • Hug H, Strand S, Grambihler A et al. Reactive oxygen intermediates are involved in the induction of CD95 ligand mRNA expression by cytostatic drugs in hepatoma cells. J. Biol. Chem.272(45), 28191–28193 (1997).
  • Feldstein AE, Canbay A, Angulo P et al. Hepatocyte apoptosis and fas expression are prominent features of human nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Gastroenterology125(2), 437–443 (2003).
  • Reaven GM. Banting Lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. 1988. Nutrition13(1), 65 (1997).
  • Khalili K, Lan FP, Hanbidge AE et al. Hepatic subcapsular steatosis in response to intraperitoneal insulin delivery: CT findings and prevalence. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol.180(6), 1601–1604 (2003).
  • Sanyal AJ, Campbell-Sargent C, Mirshahi F et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: association of insulin resistance and mitochondrial abnormalities. Gastroenterology120(5), 1183–1192 (2001).
  • Charlton M, Sreekumar R, Rasmussen D, Lindor K, Nair KS. Apolipoprotein synthesis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Hepatology35(4), 898–904 (2002).
  • Kim JK, Fillmore JJ, Chen Y et al. Tissue-specific overexpression of lipoprotein lipase causes tissue-specific insulin resistance. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA98(13), 7522–7527 (2001).
  • Magnusson I, Rothman DL, Katz LD, Shulman RG, Shulman GI. Increased rate of gluconeogenesis in type II diabetes mellitus. A13 C nuclear magnetic resonance study. J. Clin. Invest.90(4), 1323–1327 (1992).
  • Rothman DL, Magnusson I, Katz LD, Shulman RG, Shulman GI. Quantitation of hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in fasting humans with 13C NMR. Science254(5031), 573–576 (1991).
  • Hotamisligil GS, Arner P, Caro JF, Atkinson RL, Spiegelman BM. Increased adipose tissue expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in human obesity and insulin resistance. J. Clin. Invest.95(5), 2409–2415 (1995).
  • Tsochatzis E, Papatheodoridis GV, Archimandritis AJ. The evolving role of leptin and adiponectin in chronic liver diseases. Am. J. Gastroenterol.101(11), 2629–2640 (2006).
  • Anania FA. Leptin, liver, and obese mice – fibrosis in the fat lane. Hepatology36(1), 246–248 (2002).
  • Ikejima K, Takei Y, Honda H et al. Leptin receptor-mediated signaling regulates hepatic fibrogenesis and remodeling of extracellular matrix in the rat. Gastroenterology122(5), 1399–1410 (2002).
  • Kaplan LM. Leptin, obesity, and liver disease. Gastroenterology115(4), 997–1001 (1998).
  • Saxena NK, Ikeda K, Rockey DC, Friedman SL, Anania FA. Leptin in hepatic fibrosis: evidence for increased collagen production in stellate cells and lean littermates of ob/ob mice. Hepatology35(4), 762–771 (2002).
  • Nosadini R, Avogaro A, Mollo F et al. Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in cirrhosis. Evidence that hepatic uptake of gluconeogenic precursors and of free fatty acids depends on effective hepatic flow. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.58(6), 1125–1132 (1984).
  • Caldwell SH, Swerdlow RH, Khan EM et al. Mitochondrial abnormalities in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. J. Hepatol.31(3), 430–434 (1999).
  • Shoelson SE, Herrero L, Naaz A. Obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance. Gastroenterology132(6), 2169–2180 (2007).
  • Weisberg SP, Hunter D, Huber R et al. CCR2 modulates inflammatory and metabolic effects of high-fat feeding. J. Clin. Invest116(1), 115–124 (2006).
  • Fried SK, Bunkin DA, Greenberg AS. Omental and subcutaneous adipose tissues of obese subjects release interleukin-6: depot difference and regulation by glucocorticoid. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.83(3), 847–850 (1998).
  • Fain JN, Madan AK, Hiler ML, Cheema P, Bahouth SW. Comparison of the release of adipokines by adipose tissue, adipose tissue matrix, and adipocytes from visceral and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissues of obese humans. Endocrinology145(5), 2273–2282 (2004).
  • Cai D, Yuan M, Frantz DF et al. Local and systemic insulin resistance resulting from hepatic activation of IKK-β and NF-κB. Nat Med, 11(2), 183–190 (2005).
  • Shi H, Kokoeva MV, Inouye K et al. TLR4 links innate immunity and fatty acid-induced insulin resistance. J. Clin. Invest116(11), 3015–3025 (2006).
  • Lee JY, Sohn KH, Rhee SH, Hwang D. Saturated fatty acids, but not unsaturated fatty acids, induce the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 mediated through Toll-like receptor 4. J. Biol. Chem.276(20), 16683–16689 (2001).
  • Clark JM, Brancati FL, Diehl AM. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology122(6), 1649–1657 (2002).
  • Marceau P, Biron S, Hould FS et al. Liver pathology and the metabolic syndrome X in severe obesity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.84(5), 1513–1517 (1999).
  • Andersen T, Gluud C, Franzmann MB, Christoffersen P. Hepatic effects of dietary weight loss in morbidly obese subjects. J. Hepatol.12(2), 224–229 (1991).
  • Adams LA, Lymp JF, St Sauver J et al. The natural history of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a population-based cohort study. Gastroenterology129(1), 113–121 (2005).
  • Dam-Larsen S, Franzmann M, Andersen IB et al. Long term prognosis of fatty liver: risk of chronic liver disease and death. Gut53(5), 750–755 (2004).
  • Harrison SA, Torgerson S, Hayashi PH. The natural history of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a clinical histopathological study. Am. J. Gastroenterol.98(9), 2042–2047 (2003).
  • Bellentani S, Bedogni G, Miglioli L et al. Natural history and incidence of non alcoholic and alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD, AFLD) in the general population with alteration of liver enzymes. J. Hepatol.42(Suppl. 2), 3 (2005).
  • Ekstedt M, Franzen LE, Mathiesen UL et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with NAFLD and elevated liver enzymes. Hepatology44(4), 865–873 (2006).
  • Adams LA, Sanderson S, Lindor KD, Angulo P. The histological course of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a longitudinal study of 103 patients with sequential liver biopsies. J. Hepatol.42(1), 132–138 (2005).
  • Fassio E, Alvarez E, Dominguez N, Landeira G, Longo C. Natural history of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a longitudinal study of repeat liver biopsies. Hepatology40(4), 820–826 (2004).
  • Caldwell SH, Oelsner DH, Iezzoni JC et al. Cryptogenic cirrhosis: clinical characterization and risk factors for underlying disease. Hepatology29(3), 664–669 (1999).
  • Poonawala A, Nair SP, Thuluvath PJ. Prevalence of obesity and diabetes in patients with cryptogenic cirrhosis: a case–control study. Hepatology32(4 Pt 1), 689–692 (2000).
  • Powell EE, Jonsson JR, Clouston AD. Dangerous liaisons: the metabolic syndrome and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Ann. Intern. Med.143(10), 753–754 (2005).
  • Ioannou GN, Weiss NS, Kowdley KV, Dominitz JA. Is obesity a risk factor for cirrhosis-related death or hospitalization? A population-based cohort study. Gastroenterology125(4), 1053–1059 (2003).
  • El Serag HB, Tran T, Everhart JE. Diabetes increases the risk of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology126(2), 460–468 (2004).
  • Hui JM, Kench JG, Chitturi S et al. Long-term outcomes of cirrhosis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis compared with hepatitis C. Hepatology38(2), 420–427 (2003).
  • Ratziu V, Bonyhay L, Di MV et al. Survival, liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma in obesity-related cryptogenic cirrhosis. Hepatology35(6), 1485–1493 (2002).
  • Bugianesi E, Leone N, Vanni E et al. Expanding the natural history of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: from cryptogenic cirrhosis to hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology123(1), 134–140 (2002).
  • Bugianesi E. Review article: steatosis, the metabolic syndrome and cancer. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther.22(Suppl. 2), 40–43 (2005).
  • Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N. Engl. J. Med.348(17), 1625–1638 (2003).
  • Murphy TK, Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Kahn HS, Thun MJ. Body mass index and colon cancer mortality in a large prospective study. Am. J. Epidemiol.,152(9), 847–854 (2000).
  • Marrero JA, Fontana RJ, Su GL et al. NAFLD may be a common underlying liver disease in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States. Hepatology36(6), 1349–1354 (2002).
  • Ueno T, Sugawara H, Sujaku K et al. Therapeutic effects of restricted diet and exercise in obese patients with fatty liver. J. Hepatol.27(1), 103–107 (1997).
  • Vajro P, Fontanella A, Perna C et al. Persistent hyperaminotransferasemia resolving after weight reduction in obese children. J. Pediatr.125(2), 239–241 (1994).
  • Dean RH, Scott HW Jr, Shull HJ, Gluck FW. Morbid obesity: problems associated with operative management. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.30(1), 90–97 (1977).
  • Drenick EJ, Simmons F, Murphy JF. Effect on hepatic morphology of treatment of obesity by fasting, reducing diets and small-bowel bypass. N. Engl. J. Med.282(15), 829–834 (1970).
  • Marchesini G, Suppini A, Forlani G. NAFLD treatment: cognitive-behavioral therapy has entered the arena. J. Hepatol.43(6), 926–928 (2005).
  • Rollins G. Moderate exercise reduces the risk of heart disease and death in men with type 2 diabetes. Rep. Med. Guidel. Outcomes. Res.14(11), 10–12 (2003).
  • Eden KB, Orleans CT, Mulrow CD, Pender NJ, Teutsch SM. Does counseling by clinicians improve physical activity? A summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann. Intern. Med.137(3), 208–215 (2002).
  • Hoppeler H. Skeletal muscle substrate metabolism. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.23(Suppl. 3), S7–S10 (1999).
  • Jones NL, Killian KJ. Exercise limitation in health and disease. N. Engl. J. Med.343(9), 632–641 (2000).
  • Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N. Engl. J. Med.344(18), 1343–1350 (2001).
  • van Baak MA. Exercise training and substrate utilisation in obesity. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.23(Suppl. 3) S11–S17 (1999).
  • Hussein O, Grosovski M, Lasri E et al. Monounsaturated fat decreases hepatic lipid content in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in rats. World J Gastroenterol, 13(3), 361–368 (2007).
  • Dhingra R, Sullivan L, Jacques PF et al. Soft drink consumption and risk of developing cardiometabolic risk factors and the metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults in the community. Circulation116(5), 480–488 (2007).
  • Zelber-Sagi S, Nitzan-Kaluski D, Goldsmith R et al. Long term nutritional intake and the risk for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a population based study. J. Hepatol.47(5), 711–717 (2007).
  • Siebler J, Galle PR. Treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. World J. Gastroenterol.12(14), 2161–2167 (2006).
  • Kraus WE, Houmard JA, Duscha BD et al. Effects of the amount and intensity of exercise on plasma lipoproteins. N. Engl. J. Med.347(19), 1483–1492 (2002).
  • Angulo P, Lindor KD. Treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver: present and emerging therapies. Semin. Liver Dis.21(1), 81–88 (2001).
  • Suzuki A, Lindor K, St SJ et al. Effect of changes on body weight and lifestyle in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Hepatol.43(6), 1060–1066 (2005).
  • Huang MA, Greenson JK, Chao C et al. One-year intense nutritional counseling results in histological improvement in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot study. Am. J. Gastroenterol.100(5), 1072–1081 (2005).
  • Ryan DH. Use of sibutramine to treat obesity. Prim. Care30(2), 405–426 (2003).
  • Harrison SA, Fincke C, Helinski D, Torgerson S, Hayashi P. A pilot study of orlistat treatment in obese, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis patients. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther.20(6), 623–628 (2004).
  • Harrison SA, Ramrakhiani S, Brunt EM et al. Orlistat in the treatment of NASH: a case series. Am. J. Gastroenterol.98(4), 926–930 (2003).
  • Sabuncu T, Nazligul Y, Karaoglanoglu M, Ucar E, Kilic FB. The effects of sibutramine and orlistat on the ultrasonographic findings, insulin resistance and liver enzyme levels in obese patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Rom. J. Gastroenterol.12(3), 189–192 (2003).
  • Zelber-Sagi S, Kessler A, Brazowsky E et al. A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial of orlistat for the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.4(5), 639–644 (2006).
  • Assy N, Hussein O, Abassi Z. Weight loss induced by orlistat reverses fatty infiltration and improves hepatic fibrosis in obese patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Gut56(3), 443–444 (2007).
  • Despres JP, Golay A, Sjostrom L. Effects of rimonabant on metabolic risk factors in overweight patients with dyslipidemia. N. Engl. J. Med.353(20), 2121–2134 (2005).
  • Luyckx FH, Scheen AJ, Desaive C, Thiry A, Lefebvre PJ. Parallel reversibility of biological markers of the metabolic syndrome and liver steatosis after gastroplasty-induced weight loss in severe obesity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.84(11), 4293 (1999).
  • Laurin J, Lindor KD, Crippin JS et al. Ursodeoxycholic acid or clofibrate in the treatment of non-alcohol-induced steatohepatitis: a pilot study. Hepatology23(6), 1464–1467 (1996).
  • Basaranoglu M, Acbay O, Sonsuz A. A controlled trial of gemfibrozil in the treatment of patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. J. Hepatol.31(2), 384 (1999).
  • Chalasani N, Aljadhey H, Kesterson J, Murray MD, Hall SD. Patients with elevated liver enzymes are not at higher risk for statin hepatotoxicity. Gastroenterology126(5), 1287–1292 (2004).
  • Angulo P. Use of ursodeoxycholic acid in patients with liver disease. Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep.4(1), 37–44 (2002).
  • Lindor KD, Kowdley KV, Heathcote EJ et al. Ursodeoxycholic acid for treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: results of a randomized trial. Hepatology39(3), 770–778 (2004).
  • Hasegawa T, Yoneda M, Nakamura K, Makino I, Terano A. Plasma transforming growth factor-β1 level and efficacy of α-tocopherol in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther.15(10), 1667–1672 (2001).
  • Lavine JE. Vitamin E treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in children: a pilot study. J. Pediatr.136(6), 734–738 (2000).
  • Harrison SA, Torgerson S, Hayashi P, Ward J, Schenker S. Vitamin E and vitamin C treatment improves fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol.98(11), 2485–2490 (2003).
  • Abdelmalek MF, Angulo P, Jorgensen RA, Sylvestre PB, Lindor KD. Betaine, a promising new agent for patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: results of a pilot study. Am. J. Gastroenterol.96(9), 2711–2717 (2001).
  • Marchesini G, Brizi M, Bianchi G et al. Metformin in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Lancet358(9285), 893–894 (2001).
  • Nair S, Diehl AM, Wiseman M, Farr GH Jr, Perrillo RP. Metformin in the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot open label trial. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther.,20(1), 23–28 (2004).
  • Bugianesi E, Gentilcore E, Manini R et al. A randomized controlled trial of metformin versus vitamin E or prescriptive diet in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol.100(5), 1082–1090 (2005).
  • Uygun A, Kadayifci A, Isik AT et al. Metformin in the treatment of patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Aliment.Pharmacol.Ther.19(5), 537–544 (2004).
  • Aubert J, Champigny O, Saint-Marc P et al. Up-regulation of UCP-2 gene expression by PPAR agonists in preadipose and adipose cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.238(2), 606–611 (1997).
  • Kelly IE, Han TS, Walsh K, Lean ME. Effects of a thiazolidinedione compound on body fat and fat distribution of patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 22–2), 288–293 (1999).
  • Lenhard JM, Kliewer SA, Paulik MA et al. Effects of troglitazone and metformin on glucose and lipid metabolism: alterations of two distinct molecular pathways. Biochem. Pharmacol.54(7), 801–808 (1997).
  • Ribon V, Johnson JH, Camp HS, Saltiel AR. Thiazolidinediones and insulin resistance: peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor γ activation stimulates expression of the CAP gene. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA95(25), 14751–14756 (1998).
  • Vamecq J, Latruffe N. Medical significance of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Lancet354(9173), 141–148 (1999).
  • Caldwell SH, Hespenheide EE, Redick JA et al. A pilot study of a thiazolidinedione, troglitazone, in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol.96(2), 519–525 (2001).
  • Menon KVN, Angulo P, Lindor KD. Severe cholestatic hepatitis from troglitazone in a patient with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Gastroenterol.96(5), 1631–1634 (2001).
  • Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Brunt EM, Wehmeier KR, Oliver D, Bacon BR. Improved nonalcoholic steatohepatitis after 48 weeks of treatment with the PPAR-gamma ligand rosiglitazone. Hepatology38(4), 1008–1017 (2003).
  • Promrat K, Lutchman G, Uwaifo GI et al. A pilot study of pioglitazone treatment for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Hepatology39(1), 188–196 (2004).
  • Sanyal AJ, Mofrad PS, Contos MJ et al. A pilot study of vitamin E versus vitamin E and pioglitazone for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.2(12), 1107–1115 (2004).
  • Belfort R, Harrison SA, Brown K et al. A placebo-controlled trial of pioglitazone in subjects with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. N. Engl. J. Med.355(22), 2297–2307 (2006).
  • Marchesini G, Natale S, Manini R, Agostini F. Review article: the treatment of fatty liver disease associated with the metabolic syndrome. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther.22(Suppl. 2), 37–39 (2005).
  • Garcia-Ruiz I, Rodriguez-Juan C, Diaz-Sanjuan T et al. Effects of rosiglitazone on the liver histology and mitochondrial function in ob/ob mice. Hepatology46(2), 414–423 (2007).
  • Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N. Engl. J. Med.356(24), 2457–2471 (2007).
  • Singh S, Loke YK, Furberg CD. Long-term risk of cardiovascular events with rosiglitazone: a meta-analysis. JAMA298(10), 1189–1195 (2007).
  • Dormandy JA, Charbonnel B, Eckland DJ et al. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet366(9493), 1279–1289 (2005).
  • Lincoff AM, Wolski K, Nicholls SJ, Nissen SE. Pioglitazone and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. JAMA298(10), 1180–1188 (2007).
  • Satapathy SK, Garg S, Chauhan R et al. Beneficial effects of tumor necrosis factor-α inhibition by pentoxifylline on clinical, biochemical, and metabolic parameters of patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol.99(10), 1946–1952 (2004).
  • Adams LA, Zein CO, Angulo P, Lindor KD. A pilot trial of pentoxifylline in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol.99(12), 2365–2368 (2004).
  • Kushner RF, Noble CA. Long-term outcome of bariatric surgery: an interim analysis. Mayo Clin. Proc.81(10 Suppl.), S46–S51 (2006).
  • Charlton M, Kasparova P, Weston S et al. Frequency of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis as a cause of advanced liver disease. Liver Transpl.7(7), 608–614 (2001).
  • Contos MJ, Cales W, Sterling RK et al. Development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease after orthotopic liver transplantation for cryptogenic cirrhosis. Liver Transpl.7(4), 363–373 (2001).
  • Sass DA, Chang P, Chopra KB. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a clinical review. Dig. Dis. Sci.50(1), 171–180 (2005).
  • Partin JS, Partin JC, Schubert WK, McAdams AJ. Liver ultrastructure in aβ-lipoproteinemia: Evolution of micronodular cirrhosis. Gastroenterology67(1), 107–118 (1974).
  • Wasserman JM, Thung SN, Berman R, Bodenheimer HC Jr, Sigal SH. Hepatic Weber–Christian disease. Semin. Liver Dis.21(1), 115–118 (2001).
  • Mansouri A, Gaou I, Fromenty B et al. Premature oxidative aging of hepatic mitochondrial DNA in Wilson’s disease. Gastroenterology113(2), 599–605 (1997).
  • Van SW, Lanckmans S. Liver disturbances in obesity and diabetes mellitus. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.19(Suppl. 3), S27–S36 (1995).
  • Cassagnou M, Boruchowicz A, Guillemot F et al. Hepatic steatosis revealing celiac disease: a case complicated by transitory liver failure. Am. J. Gastroenterol.91(6), 1291–1292 (1996).
  • Simon JB, Manley PN, Brien JF, Armstrong PW. Amiodarone hepatotoxicity simulating alcoholic liver disease. N. Engl. J. Med.311(3), 167–172 (1984).
  • Dahl MG, Gregory MM, Scheuer PJ. Liver damage due to methotrexate in patients with psoriasis. Br. Med. J.1(750), 625–630 (1971).
  • Cai Q, Bensen M, Greene R, Kirchner J. Tamoxifen-induced transient multifocal hepatic fatty infiltration. Am. J. Gastroenterol.95(1), 277–279 (2000).
  • Pinto HC, Baptista A, Camilo ME et al. Tamoxifen-associated steatohepatitis – report of three cases. J. Hepatol.23(1), 95–97 (1995).
  • Dourakis SP, Sevastianos VA, Kaliopi P. Acute severe steatohepatitis related to prednisolone therapy. Am. J. Gastroenterol.97(4), 1074–1075 (2002).
  • Cote HC, Brumme ZL, Craib KJ et al. Changes in mitochondrial DNA as a marker of nucleoside toxicity in HIV-infected patients. N. Engl. J. Med.346(11), 811–820 (2002).
  • Cotrim HP, Andrade ZA, Parana R et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a toxic liver disease in industrial workers. Liver19(4), 299–304 (1999).
  • Redlich CA, West AB, Fleming L et al. Clinical and pathological characteristics of hepatotoxicity associated with occupational exposure to dimethylformamide. Gastroenterology99(3), 748–757 (1990).
  • Cotrim H, Freitas LA, Freitas C et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in petrochemoical workers: follow up of those removed from exposure area and those who remained. Hepatology36, 983 (2002).
  • Alberti KG, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Par 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabet. Med.15(7), 539–553 (1998).
  • Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation106(25), 3143–3421 (2002).
  • Grundy SM, Brewer HB Jr, Cleeman JI, Smith SC Jr, Lenfant C. Definition of metabolic syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation109(3), 433–438 (2004).
  • Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement. Circulation112(17), 2735–2752 (2005).
  • Maher JJ, Cores GJ, Lu SC. Mechanisms of liver injury due to fat. In: Liver Diseases. Mechanisms of Liver Injury in Emerging Therapeutics. American Association for the Study of the Liver Diseases, 89–96 (2006).
  • Reid AE, Wright TL, Rocky DC. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Diagnosis and clinical outcomes. In: Liver Disease: From Bench to Bedside. American Association for the Study of Liver Disease, 83–89 (2004).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.