Statins as emerging treatments for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

References

• Walsh GM, McDougall CM. The resolution of airway inflammation in asthma and COPD. In: Progress in Inflammation Research. Rossi AG, Sawatzky D (Eds). Birkhauser Verlag AG, Basel, Switzerland 159–191 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Celli BR, MacNee W. ATS/ERS Task Force Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with COPD: a summary of the ATS/ERS position paper. Eur. Respir. J.23, 932–946 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffery PK. Structural and inflammatory changes in COPD: a comparison with asthma. Thorax53, 129–136 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holtzman MJ. Drug development for asthma. Am. J. Resp. Cell Mol. Biol.29, 163–171 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calverley P, Pauwels R, Vestbo J et al. Combined salmeterol and fluticasone in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet361, 449–456 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laufs U, Liao JK. Isoprenoid metabolism and the pleiotropic effects of statins. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep.5, 372–378 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue I, Gotto S, Mizotani K et al. Lipophilic HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor has an anti-inflammatory effect: reduction of mRNA levels for interleukin-1, interleukin-6, cyclooxygenase-2, and p22phox by regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) in primary endothelial cells. Life Sci.67, 863–876 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grip O, Janciauskiene S, Lindgren S. Atorvastatin activates PPAR-c and attenuates the inflammatory response in human monocytes. Inflamm. Res.51, 58–62 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanno T, Abe K, Yabuki M, Akiyama J, Yasuda T, Horton AA. Selective inhibition of formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLF)-dependent superoxide generation in neutrophils by pravastatin, an inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. Biochem. Pharmacol.58, 1975–1980 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weitz-Schmidt G, Welzenbach K, Brinkmann V et al. Statins selectively inhibit leukocyte function antigen-1 by binding to a novel regulatory integrin site. Nat. Med.7, 687–692 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dykstra ML, Cherukuri A, Pierce S. Floating the raft hypothesis for immune receptors: access and receptor signalling and trafficking. Traffic2, 160–166 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwak B, Mulhaupt F, Myit S, Mach F. Statins as a newly recognized type of immunomodulator. Nat. Med.6, 1399–1402 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fehr T, Kahlert C, Fierz W et al. Statin-induced immunomodulatory effects on human T cells in vivo. Atherosclerosis175, 83–90 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Yilmaz A, Reiss C, Weng A et al. Differential effects of statins on relevant functions of human monocytes derived dendritic cells. J. Leukoc. Biol.79, 529–538 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh GM. Defective apoptotic cell clearance in asthma and COPD – a new drug target for statins? Trends Pharmacol. Sci.29(1), 6–11 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Dirks AJ, Jones KM. Statin-induced apoptosis and skeletal myopathy. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol.291, C1208–C1212 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ando H, Takamura T, Ota T, Nagai Y, Kobayashi K. Cerivastatin improves survival of mice with lipopolysaccharide-induced sepsis. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.294, 1043–1046 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diomede L, Albani D, Sottocorno M et al.in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of statins is mediated by nonsterol mevalonate products. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.21, 1327–1332 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischetti F, Carretta R, Borotto G et al. Fluvastatin treatment inhibits leucocyte adhesion and extravasation in models of complement-mediated acute inflammation. Clin. Exp. Immunol.135, 186–192 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naidu BV, Woolley SM, Farivar AS, Thomas R, Fraga C, Mulligan MS. Simvastatin ameliorates injury in an experimental model of lung ischemia–reperfusion. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg.126, 482–448 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarey DW, McInnes IB, Madhok R et al. Trial of atorvastatin in rheumatoid arthritis (TARA): double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet363, 2015–2021 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiss AB, Wirkowski E. Role of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors in neurological disorders: progress to date. Drugs67, 2111–2120 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hothersall E, McSharry C, Thomson NC. Potential therapeutic role for statins in respiratory disease. Thorax61, 729–734 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh GM, Al-Rabia M, Blaylock MG, Sexton DW, Duncan CJA, Lawrie A. Control of eosinophil toxicity in the lung. Curr. Drug Targets Inflamm. Allergy4, 481–486 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wenzel SE, Schwartz LB, Langmac EL et al. Evidence that severe asthma can be divided pathologically into two inflammatory subtypes with distinct physiologic and clinical characteristics. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.160, 1001–1008 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balzar S, Chu HW, Silkoff P. Increased TGF-β2 in severe asthma with eosinophilia. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.115, 110–115 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo FM, Liu CT, Li SQ, Wang ZL. [Simvastatin induces eosinophil apoptosis in vitro.] Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi28(5), 320–323 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• McKay A. A novel anti-inflammatory role of simvastatin in a murine model of allergic asthma. J. Immunol.172, 2903–2908 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawman, S. Atorvastatin inhibits autoreactive B cell activation and delays lupus development in New Zealand black/white F1 mice. J. Immunol.173, 7641–7646 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim DY. Anti-inflammatory mechanism of simvastatin in mouse allergic asthma model. Eur. J. Pharmacol.557, 76–86 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krauth MT, Majlesi Y, Sonneck K et al. Effects of various statins on cytokine-dependent growth and IgE-dependent release of histamine in human mast cells. Allergy61, 281–288 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takeda N. Role of RhoA inactivation in reduced cell proliferation of human airway smooth muscle by simvastatin. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol.35, 722–729 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menzies D Menzies D, Nair A et al. Simvastatin does not exhibit therapeutic anti-inflammatory effects in asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.119, 328–335 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maclay JD, McAllister DA, Macnee W. Cardiovascular risk in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respirology5, 634–641 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Yamamoto C, Yoneda T, Yoshikawa M et al. Airway inflammation in COPD assessed by sputum levels of interleukin-8. Chest112, 505–510 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhowmik A, Seemungal TAR, Sapsford RJ, Wedzicha JA. Relation of sputum inflammatory markers to symptoms and lung function changes in COPD exacerbations. Thorax55, 114–120 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayden JM, Swartfiguer J, Szelinger S et al. Lysophosphatidylcholine stimulation of alveolar epithelial cell interleukin-8 production and neutrophil chemotaxis is inhibited by statin treatment. FASEB J.20(4) Pt 1 (2006) A647.
   Google Scholar
• Fessler MB, Young SK, Jeyaseelan S et al. A role for hydroxy-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase in pulmonary inflammation and host defense. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.171, 606–615 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee J-H, Lee DS, Kim EK et al. Simvastatin inhibits cigarette smoking-induced emphysema and pulmonary hypertension in rat lungs. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.172, 987–993 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hannah S. Hypoxia prolongs neutrophil survival in vitro. FEBS Lett.372, 233–237 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasahara Y, Tuder RM, Cool CD, Lynch DA, Flores SC, Voelkel NF. Endothelial cell death and decreased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 in emphysema. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.163, 737–744 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imai K. Human collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-1) expression in the lungs of patients with emphysema. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.163, 786–791 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yokohori N. Increased levels of cell death and proliferation in alveolar wall cells in patients with pulmonary emphysema. Chest125, 626–632 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodge S. Increased airway epithelial and T-cell apoptosis in COPD remains despite smoking cessation. Eur. Respir. J.25, 447–454 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasahara Y. Inhibition of VEGF receptors causes lung cell apoptosis and emphysema. J. Clin. Invest.106, 1311–1319 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savill J, Fadok V. Corpse clearance defines the meaning of cell death. Nature407, 784–788 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaipl US. Inefficient clearance of dying cells and autoreactivity. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol.305, 161–176 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandivier RW, Henson PM, Douglas IS. The impact of failed apoptotic cell removal (efferocytosis) on chronic inflammatory lung disease. Chest129, 1673–1682 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Hodge S, Hodge G, Scicchitano R, Reynolds PN, Holmes M. Alveolar macrophages from subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are deficient in their ability to phagocytose apoptotic airway epithelial cells. Immunol. Cell Biol.81, 289 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huynh ML. Defective apoptotic cell phagocytosis attenuates prostaglandin E2 and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid in severe asthma alveolar macrophages. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.172, 972–979 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stuar LM, Ezekowitz RA. Phagocytosis: elegant complexity. Immunity22, 539–550 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Gardai SJ. Recognition ligands on apoptotic cells: a perspective. J. Leuk. Biol.79, 896–903 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krysko DV. Clearance of apoptotic and necrotic cells and its immunological consequences. Apoptosis11, 1709–1726 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pons AR. Characterisation of alveolar macrophages and peripheral blood monocytes in COPD. Eur. Respir. J.25, 647–652 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodge S, Hodge G, Ahern J, Jersmaa H, Holmes M, Reynolds PN. Smoking alters alveolar macrophage recognition and phagocytic ability: implications in COPD. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol.37(6), 748–755 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morimoto K. Lovastatin enhances clearance of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis) with implications for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Immunol.176, 7657–7665 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asada K. Anti-inflammatory roles of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ in human alveolar macrophages. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.169, 195–200 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chello M. Simvastatin increases neutrophil apoptosis and reduces inflammatory reaction after coronary surgery. Ann. Thorac. Surg.83, 1374–1380 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancini GB. Reduction of morbidity and mortality by statins, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.47, 2554–2560 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soyseth V, Brekke PH, Smith P, Omland T. Statin use is associated with reduced mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur. Respir. J.29, 279–283 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancini GB. Clarion call for trials assessing “cardiopulmonary” agents to reduce morbidity and mortality in inflammatory lung diseases. Chest131, 950–951 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Warnholtz A, Genth-Zotz S, Munzel T. Should treatment of sepsis include statins? Circulation111, 1735–1737 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Frost FJ, Petersen H, Tollestrup K, Skipper B. Influenza and COPD mortality protection as pleiotropic, dose-dependent effects of statins. Chest.131(4), 1006–1012 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodge S. Azithromycin increases phagocytosis of apoptotic bronchial epithelial cells by alveolar macrophages. Eur. Resp. J.28, 486–485 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar