Vaccination to protect against infection of the female reproductive tract

References

• Kelleher P. HIV immunology: what lessons can we learn from recent vaccine trials? J. HIV Ther.15(1), 2–5 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mckinnon LR, Card CM. HIV vaccine efficacy trials: a brief history, and options for going forward. AIDS Rev.12(4), 209–217 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WHO. Global Prevalence and Incidence Of Selected Curable Sexually Transmitted Infections Overview and Estimates. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Jarayaman G, Totten S, Perrin M, Fang L, Remes O. Report on Sexually Transmitted Infections in Canada: 2008. Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Jindal N, Aggarwah A, Gill P, Sacharwai B, Sheevani BB. Community-based study of reproductive tract infections, including sexually transmitted infections, among the rural population of Punjab, India. India J. Comm. Med.34, 359–361 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoare A, Wilson DP, Regan DG, Kaldor J, Law MG. Using mathematical modelling to help explain the differential increase in HIV incidence in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland: importance of other sexually transmissible infections. Sex. Health5, 169–187 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russell MW, Mestecky J. Tolerance and protection against infection in the genital tract. Immuno. Invest.39, 500–525 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallely A, Page A, Dias S et al. The prevalence of sexually transmitted infections in papua new Guinea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One5(12), e15586 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Guy RJ, Kong F, Goller J et al. A new national Chlamydia sentinel surveillance system in Australia: evaluation of the first stage of implementation. Comm. Dis. Intell.319–328 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Blandford JM, Gift TL. The cost–effectiveness of single-dose azithromycin for treatment of incubating syphilis. Sex. Transm. Dis.30, 502–508 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anonymous. HIV vaccine failure prompts Merck to halt trial. Nature449, 390 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tawk HM, Vickery K, Bisset L, Lo SK, Selby W, Cossart YE. The current pattern of hepatitis B virus infection in Australia. J. Viral Hepat.13, 206–215 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CDC. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. MMWR59(RR-12), 69–71 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Moodley P, Wilkinson D, Connolly C. Trichomonas vaginalis is associated with pelvic inflammatory disease in women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Infect. Dis.34, 519–522 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forna F, Gülmezoglu AM. Interventions for treating trichomoniasis in women. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.2, CD000218 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Petrin D, Delgaty K, Bhatt R, Garber G. Clinical and microbiological aspects of Trichomonas Vaginalis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.11, 300–317 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Org GF. Global Health Program. 2011 Bill Melinda Gates Foundation, DC, USA (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Witkin SS, Linhares IM, Giraldo P. Bacterial flora of the female genital tract: function and immune regulation. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol.21, 347–354 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahey JV, Schaefer TM, Wira CR. Sex hormone modulation of human uterine epithelial cell immune responses. Integr. Comp. Biol.46, 1082–1087 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wira CR, Rossoll RM, Kaushic C. Antigen-presenting cells in the female reproductive tract: influence of estradiol on antigen presentation by vaginal cells. Endocrinology141, 2877–2885 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ruiz RJ, Fullerton J, Brown CE, Dudley DJ. Predicting risk of preterm birth: the roles of stress, clinical risk factors, and corticotropin-releasing hormone. Biol. Res. Nurs.4, 54–64 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kawana K, Kawana Y, Schust DJ. Female steroid hormones use signal transducers and activators of transcription protein-mediated pathways to modulate the expression of T-bet in epithelial cells: a mechanism for local immune regulation in the human reproductive tract. Mol. Endocrinol.19, 2047–2059 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hickey DK, Patel MV, Fahey JV, Wira CR. Innate and adaptive immunity at mucosal surfaces of the female reproductive tract: stratification and integration of immune protection against the transmission of sexually transmitted infections. J. Reprod. Immunol.88, 185–189 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao C, Wang I, Lehrer RI. Widespread expression of β-defensin hBD-1 in human secretory glands and epithelial cells. FEBS Lett.396(2–3), 319–322 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wira CR, Fahey JV. The innate immune system: gatekeeper to the female reproductive tract. Immunology111(1), 13–15 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elinav E, Strowig T, Henao-Mejia J, Flavell RA. Regulation of the antimicrobial response by NLR proteins. Immunity34, 665–679 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang ZH, Koganty RR. Synthetic vaccines: the role of adjuvants in immune targeting. Curr. Med. Chem.10, 1423–1439 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aflatoonian R, Fazeli A. Toll-like receptors in female reproductive tract and their menstrual cycle dependent expression. J. Reprod. Immunol.77(1), 7–13 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aflatoonian R, Tuckerman E, Elliott SL et al. Menstrual cycle-dependent changes of Toll-like receptors in endometrium. Hum. Reprod.22(2), 586–593 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bouman A, Heineman MJ, Faas MM. Sex hormones and the immune response in humans. Hum. Reprod. Update11(4), 411–423 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fish EN. The X-files in immunity: sex-based differences predispose immune responses. Nat. Rev. Immunol.8(9), 737–744 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stopinska-Gluszak U, Waligora J, Grzela T et al. Effect of estrogen/progesterone hormone replacement therapy on natural killer cell cytotoxicity and immunoregulatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of postmenopausal women. J. Reprod. Immunol.69(1), 65–75 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaul R, Pettengell C, Sheth PM et al. The genital tract immune milieu: an important determinant of HIV susceptibility and secondary transmission. J. Reprod. Immunol.77(1), 32–40 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton DL, Thwin SS, Meier A, Hooton TM, Stapleton AE, Eschenbach DA. Epithelial cell layer thickness and immune cell populations in the normal human vagina at different stages of the menstrual cycle. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.183(4), 967–973 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• White HD, Crassi KM, Givan AL et al. CD3+ CD8+ CTL activity within the human female reproductive tract: influence of stage of the menstrual cycle and menopause. J. Immunol.158(6), 3017–3027 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeaman GR, Collins JE, Fanger MW, Wira CR, Lydyard PM. CD8+ T cells in human uterine endometrial lymphoid aggregates: evidence for accumulation of cells by trafficking. Immunology102, 434–440 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeaman GR, Guyre PM, Fanger MW et al. Unique CD8+ T cell-rich lymphoid aggregates in human uterine endometrium. J. Leukoc. Biol.61(4), 427–435 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu FX, Ma Z, Moser S, Evans TG, Miller CJ. Effects of ovarian steroids on immunoglobulin-secreting cell function in healthy women. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol.10(5), 944–949 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wira CR, Sullivan DA. Estradiol and progesterone regulation of immunoglobulin A and G and secretory component in cervicovaginal secretions of the rat. Biol. Reprod.32(1), 90–95 (1985).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes GC, Clark EA. Regulation of dendritic cells by female sex steroids: relevance to immunity and autoimmunity. Autoimmunity40(6), 470–481 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovats S, Carreras E. Regulation of dendritic cell differentiation and function by estrogen receptor ligands. Cell Immunol.252(1–2), 81–90 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bengtsson AK, Ryan EJ, Giordano D, Magaletti DM, Clark EA. 17β-estradiol (E2) modulates cytokine and chemokine expression in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Blood104(5), 1404–1410 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy AJ, Guyre PM, Wira CR, Pioli PA. Estradiol regulates expression of estrogen receptor ERα46 in human macrophages. PLoS One4(5), e5539 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang J, Sun L, Wang Q, Hou Y. Progesterone regulates mouse dendritic cells differentiation and maturation. Int. Immunopharmacol.6(5), 830–838 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baeten JM, Nyange PM, Richardson BA et al. Hormonal contraception and risk of sexually transmitted disease acquisition: results from a prospective study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.185, 380–385 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wira CR, Fahey JV. A new strategy to understand how HIV infects women: identification of a window of vulnerability during the menstrual cycle. AIDS22, 1909–1917 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardelli-Haefliger D, Roden R, Balmelli C, Potts A, Schiller J, De Grandi P. Mucosal but not parenteral immunization with purified human papillomavirus Type 16 virus-like particles induces neutralizing titers of antibodies throughout the estrous cycle of mice. J. Virol.73(11), 9609–9613 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johansson EL, Wassen L, Holmgren J, Jertborn M, Rudin A. Nasal and vaginal vaccinations have differential effects on antibody responses in vaginal and cervical secretions in humans. Infect. Immun.69(12), 7481–7486 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozlowski PA, Williams SB, Lynch RM et al. Differential induction of mucosal and systemic antibody responses in women after nasal, rectal, or vaginal immunization: influence of the menstrual cycle. J. Immunol.169(1), 566–574 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decrausaz L, Domingos-Pereira S, Duc M et al. Parenteral but not mucosal immunization is able to induce regression of human papillomavirus associated genital tumors. Int. J. Cancer129(3), 762–772 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stanley M, Lowy Dr, Fraser I. Chapter 12: prophylactic HPV vaccines: underlying mechanisms. Vaccine24(Suppl. 3), 106–113 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer JB, Liu MA. Science and society – vaccines: ethical issues for vaccines and immunization. Nat. Rev. Immunol.2, 291–296 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim JH, Rerks-Ngarm S, Excler JL, Michael NL. HIV vaccines: lessons learned and the way forward. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS4, 428–434 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Walboomers JM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM et al. Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. J. Pathol.189(1), 12–19 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werness BA, Levine AJ, Howley PM. Association of human papillomavirus Types 16 and 18 E6 proteins with p53. Science248, 76–79 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villa LL, Costa RL, Petta CA et al. High sustained efficacy of a prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus Types 6/11/16/18 L1 virus-like particle vaccine through 5 years of follow-up. Br. J. Cancer1459–1466 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Future I/Ii study group, Dillner J, Kjaer SK et al. Four year efficacy of prophylactic human papillomavirus quadrivalent vaccine against low grade cervical, vulvar, and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia and anogenital warts: randomised controlled trial. BMJ341, 3493 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brotherton JM, Fridman M, May CL, Chappell G, Saville AM, Gertig DM. Early effect of the HPV vaccination programme on cervical abnormalities in Victoria, Australia: an ecological study. Lancet377(9783), 2085–2092 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JJ. Focus on research: weighing the benefits and costs of HPV vaccination of young men. N. Engl. J. Med.364, 393–395 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano AR, Palefsky JM, Goldstone S et al. Efficacy of quadrivalent HPV vaccine against HPV infection and disease in males. N. Engl. J. Med.364, 401–411 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greer AL, Fisman DN. Punching above their weight: males, reinfection, and the limited success of Chlamydia screening programs. Sex. Trans. Dis.36, 9–10 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson ME, Weese JS. Video observation of hand hygiene practices at a petting zoo and the impact of hand hygiene interventions. Epidemiol. Infect.1–9 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Mast EE, Margolis HS, Fiore AE et al. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP); Part 1: immunization of infants, children and adolescents. MMWR Recomm. Rep.54, RR-16 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Mast EE, Weinbaum CM, Fiore AE et al. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus in the United States: recommendations of the advisroty committee on immunization practices (ACIP); Part 2: immunization of adults. MMWR Recomm. Rep.55, RR-16 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Noble RC, Kirk NM, Slagel WA, Vance BJ, Somes GW. Recidivism among patients with gonococcal infection presenting to a venereal disease clinic. Sex. Transm. Dis.4(2), 39–43 (1977).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beagley KW, Timms P. Chlamydia trachomatis infection: incidence, health costs and prospects for vaccine development. J. Reprod. Immunol.48(1), 47–68 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fleming DT, Mcquillan GM, Johnson RE. Herpes simplex virus Type 2 in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med.337, 1105–1111 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bettahi I, Zhang X, Afifi RE, Benmohamed L. Protective immunity to genital herpes simplex virus Type 1 and Type 2 provided by self-adjuvanting lipopeptides that drive dendritic cell maturation and elicit a polarized Th1 immune response. Viral Immunol.19, 220–236 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aurelian L. Herpes simplex virus Type 2 vaccines: new ground for optimism? Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol.11, 437–445 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stanberry LR, Bernstein DI, Burke RL, Pachl C, Myers MG. Vaccination with recombinant herpes simplex virus glycoproteins: protection against initial and recurrent genital herpes. J. Infect. Dis.155, 914–920 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanberry LR, Spruance SL, Cunningham AL et al. Glycoprotein-D-adjuvant vaccine to prevent genital herpes. N. Engl. J. Med.347, 1652–1662 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boursnell ME, Entwisle C, Blakeley D et al. A genetically inactivated herpes simplex virus Type 2 (HSV-2) vaccine provides effective protection against primary and recurrent HSV-2 disease. J. Infect. Dis.175, 16–25 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham KA, Beagley KW. Male genital tract chlamydial infection: implications for pathology and infertility. Biol. Reprod.79, 180–189 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peipert JF. Clinical practice. Genital chlamydial infections. N. Engl. J. Med.349(25), 2424–2430 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grayston JT, Woolridge RL, Wang S. Trachoma vaccine studies on Taiwan. Ann. NY Acad. Sci.98, 352–367 (1962).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly KA. Cellular immunity and Chlamydia genital infection: induction, recruitment, and effector mechanisms. Int. Rev. Immunol.22(1), 3–41 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison SG, Morrison RP. A predominant role for antibody in acquired immunity to chlamydial genital tract reinfection. J. Immunol.175, 7536–7542 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison SG, Morrison RP. The protective effect of antibody in immunity to murine chlamydial genital tract reinfection is independent of immunoglobulin A. Infect. Immun.73, 6183–6186 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johansson M, Schon K, Ward M, Lycke N. Genital tract infection with Chlamydia trachomatis fails to induce protective immunity in gamma interferon receptor-deficient mice despite a strong local immunoglobulin A response. Infect. Immun.73, 1032–1044 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Andrew DW, Hafner LM, Beagley KW, Timms P. Partial protection against chlamydial reproductive tract infection by a recombinant major outer membrane protein/CpG/cholera toxin intranasal vaccine in the guinea pig Chlamydia caviae model. J. Reprod. Immunol.91, 9–16 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng C, Pal S, Bettahi I, Oxford KL, Barry PA, De La Maza LM. Immunogenicity of a vaccine formulated with the Chlamydia trachomatis serovar F, native major outer membrane protein in a nonhuman primate model. Vaccine29, 3456–3464 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kari L, Whitmire WM, Crane DD et al.Chlamydia trachomatis native major outer membrane protein induces partial protection in nonhuman primates: implication for a trachoma transmission-blocking vaccine. J. Immunol.182, 8063–8070 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun G, Pal S, Weiland J, Peterson EM, De La Maza LM. Protection against an intranasal challenge by vaccines formulated with native and recombinant preparations of the Chlamydia trachomatis major outer membrane protein. Vaccine27, 5020–5025 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lü H, Wang H, Zhao HM et al. Dendritic cells (DCs) transfected with a recombinant adenovirus carrying chlamydial major outer membrane protein antigen elicit protective immune responses against genital tract challenge infection. Biochem. Cell Biol.88, 757–765 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rockey DD, Wang J, Lei L, Zhong G. Chlamydia vaccine candidates and tools for chlamydial antigen discovery. Expert Rev. Vaccines8(10), 1365–1377 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldwell HD, Kuo CC, Kenny GE. Antigenic analysis of Chlamydiae by two-dimensional immunoelectrophoresis. II. A trachoma-LGV-specific antigen. J. Immunol.115, 969–975 (1975).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sanchez-Campillo M, Bini L, Comanducci M et al. Identification of immunoreactive proteins of Chlamydia trachomatis by Western blot analysis of a two-dimensional electrophoresis map with patient sera. Electrophoresis20(11), 2269–2279 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphey C, Murthy AK, Meier PA, Neal Guentzel M, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. The protective efficacy of chlamydial protease-like activity factor vaccination is dependent upon CD4+ T cells. Cell Immunol.242, 110–117 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stemke-Hale K, Kaltenboeck B, Degraves FJ et al. Screening the whole genome of a pathogen in vivo for individual protective antigens. Vaccine23(23), 3016–3025 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Starnbach MN, Loomis WP, Ovendale P et al. An inclusion membrane protein from Chlamydia trachomatis enters the MHC class I pathway and stimulates a CD8+ T cell response. J. Immunol.171(9), 4742–4749 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karunakaran KP, Rey-Ladino J, Stoynov N et al. Immunoproteomic discovery of novel T cell antigens from the obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia. J. Immunol.180(4), 2459–2465 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong-JI Z, Yang X, Shen C, Lu H, Murdin A, Brunham RC. Priming with Chlamydia trachomatis major outer membrane protein (MOMP) DNA followed by MOMP ISCOM boosting enhances protection and is associated with increased immunoglobulin A and Th1 cellular immune responses. Infect. Immun.68, 3074–3078 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pal S, Peterson EM, Rappuoli R, Ratti G, De La Maza LM. Immunization with the Chlamydia trachomatis major outer membrane protein, using adjuvants developed for human vaccines, can induce partial protection in a mouse model against a genital challenge. Vaccine24, 766–775 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He Q, Martinez-Sobrido L, Eko FO et al. Live-attenuated influenza viruses as delivery vectors for Chlamydia vaccines. Immunology122(1), 28–37 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macmillan L, Ifere GO, He Q et al. A recombinant multivalent combination vaccine protects against Chlamydia and genital herpes. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol.49(1), 46–55 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hansen J, Jensen KT, Follmann F, Agger EM, Theisen M, Andersen P. Liposome delivery of Chlamydia muridarum major outer membrane protein primes a Th1 response that protects against genital chlamydial infection in a mouse model. J. Infect. Dis.198, 758–767 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray RT, Beagley K, Timms P, Wilson DP. Modeling the impact of potential vaccines on epidemics of sexually transmitted Chlamydia trachomatis infection. J. Infect. Dis.199, 1680–1688 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Workowski KA, Berman SM. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Centers for disease control and prevention. SOMMWR Recomm. Rep.55, 1–11 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhu W, Chen C, Thomas CE, Anderson JE, Jerse AE, Sparling PF. Vaccines for gonorrhea: can we rise to the challenge? Front. Microbiol.2, 124 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Y, Feinen B, Russell MW. New concepts in immunity to Neisseria gonorrhoeae: innate responses and suppression of adaptive immunity favor the pathogen, not the host. Front. Microbiol.2, 52 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinen B, Jerse AE, Gaffen SL, Russell MW. Critical role of Th17 responses in a murine model of Neisseria gonorrhoeae genital infection. Mucosal Immunol.3(3), 312–321 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boslego JW, Tramont EC, Chung RC et al. Efficacy trial of a parenteral gonococcal pilus vaccine in men. Vaccine9, 154–162 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kew OM, Wright PF, Agol VI et al. Circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses: current state of knowledge. Bull. World Health Organ.82, 1 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kew O, Morris-Glasgow V, Landaverde M et al. Outbreak of poliomyelitis in Hispaniola associated with circulating Type 1 vaccine-derived poliovirus. Science296(5566), 356–359 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Connell CM, Ingalls RR, Andrews CW Jr, Scurlock AM, Darville T. Plasmid-deficient Chlamydia muridarum fail to induce immune pathology and protect against oviduct disease. J. Immunol.179(6), 4027–4034 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halford WP, Puschel R, Rakowski B. Herpes simplex virus 2 ICP0 mutant viruses are avirulent and immunogenic: implications for a genital herpes vaccine. PLoS One5(8), e12251 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halford WP, Puschel R, Gershburg E, Wilber A, Gershburg S, Rakowski B. A live-attenuated HSV-2 ICP0 virus elicits 10 to 100 times greater protection against genital herpes than a glycoprotein D subunit vaccine. PLoS One6(3), e17748 (2011).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yinon Y, Farine D, Yudin MH. Screening, diagnosis, and management of cytomegalovirus infection in pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv.65, 736–743 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serranti D, Buonsenso D, Valentini PC. Congenital toxoplasmosis treatment. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci.15, 193–198 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sha BE, Tierney C, Cohn SE et al. Postpartum viral load rebound in HIV-1-infected women treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy: AIDS clinical trials group protocol A5150. HIV Clin. Trials12, 9–23 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bardají A, Sigauque B, Sanz S et al. Impact of malaria at the end of pregnancy on infant mortality and morbidity. J. Infect. Dis.203, 691–699 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hannachi N, Marzouk M, Harrabi I et al. Seroprevalence of rubella virus, varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus and parvovirus B19 among pregnant women in the Sousse region, Tunisia. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot.104, 62–67 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vasilcan G, Avasiloaiei A, Moscalu M, Dimitriu AG, Stamatin M. Germ circulation in neonatal units – risk factors for maternal-foetal infection. Rev. Med. Chir. Soc. Med. Nat. Iasi.114, 1028–1034 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Steer PJ, Plumb J. Myth: group B streptococcal infection in pregnancy: comprehended and conquered. Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med.16(5), 254–258 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Darling EK, Mcdonald H. A meta-analysis of the efficacy of ocular prophylactic agents used for the prevention of gonococcal and chlamydial ophthalmia neonatorum. J. Midwifery Womens Health55, 319–327 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Challis JR, Lockwood CJ, Myatt L, Norman JE, Strauss JFR, Petraglia F. Inflammation and pregnancy. Reprod. Sci.16, 206–210 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pararas MV, Skevaki CL, Kafetzis DA. Preterm birth due to maternal infection: causative pathogens and modes of prevention. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.25, 562–569 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guaschino S, De Seta F, Piccoli M, Maso G, Alberico S. Aetiology of preterm labour: bacterial vaginosis. BJOG113, 46–51 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirchner L, Helmer H, Heinze G et al. Amnionitis with Ureaplasma urealyticum or other microbes leads to increased morbidity and prolonged hospitalization in very low birth weight infants. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol.134, 44–50 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baud D, Goy G, Jaton K et al. Role of Chlamydia trachomatis in miscarriage. Emerg. Infect. Dis.17, 1630–1635 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickerson CW. Gonorrhea amnionitis. Obstet. Gynecol.42, 815–817 (1973).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wheetman AP. Immunity, thyroid function and pregnancy: molecular mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Endocrin.6, 311–318 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Al-Safi ZA, Shavell VI, Gonik B. Vaccination in pregnancy. Womens Health7, 109–119 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Fox KA, Theiler R. Vaccination in pregnancy. Curr. Pharmaceut. Biotechnol.12, 789–796 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brent RL. Immunization of pregnant women: reproductive, medical and societal risks. Vaccine21, 3413–3421 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brent RL. Risks and benefits of immunizing pregnant women: the risk of doing nothing. Reproduct. Toxicol.21, 383–389 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert-Barness E. Teratogenic causes of malformations. Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci.40, 99–114 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou X, Brotman RM, Gajer P et al. Recent advances in understanding the microbiology of the female reproductive tract and the causes of premature birth. Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol.2010, 737425 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vrachnis N, Vitoratos N, Iliodromiti Z, Sifakis S, Deligeoroglou E, Creatsas G. Intrauterine inflammation and preterm delivery. Ann. NY Acad. Sci.1205, 118–122 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randis TM. Progress toward improved understanding of infection-related preterm birth. Clin. Perinatol.37, 677–688 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith-Mccune K, Sawaya GF. Update on quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccination and pregnancy outcomes: is contraception advisable? Obstet. Gynecol. Surv.114, 1168–1169 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Desoye M, Gauster G, Wadsack C. Placental transport in pregnancy pathologies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.000851 (2011) (Epub ahead of print).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pimentel MA. Vaccination during pregnancy. Acta Med. Port.23, 837–840 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Badilla X, Morice A, Avila-Aguero ML et al. Fetal risk associated with rubella vaccination during pregnancy. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J.26, 830–835 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jordan EK, Sever JL. Fetal damage caused by parvoviral infections. Reprod. Toxicol.8, 161–168 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wacholder S, Chen BE, Wilcox A et al. Risk of miscarriage with bivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV) Types 16 and 18: pooled analysis of two randomised controlled trials. BMJ340, 712 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopes CR, Berezin EN, Ching TH, Canuto Jde S, Costa VO, Klering EM. Ineffectiveness for infants of immunization of mothers with pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine during pregnancy. Braz. J. Infect. Dis.13(2), 104–106 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witkin SS, Linhares IM, Bongiovanni AM, Herway C, Skupskia D. Unique alterations in infection-induced immune activation during pregnancy. BJOG118, 145–153 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilkin T, Lee JY, Lensing SY et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in HIV-1-infected men. J. Infect. Dis.202(8), 1246–1253 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glenny AT, Pope CG, Waddington, H et al. Immunological notes. XVII–XXIV. J. Pathol. Bacteriol.29(1), 31–40 (1926).
   Google Scholar
• O’hagan DT, Ugozzoli M, Barackman J et al. Microparticles in MF59, a potent adjuvant combination for a recombinant protein vaccine against HIV-1. Vaccine18(17), 1793–1801 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gluck R. Adjuvant activity of immunopotentiating reconstituted influenza virosomes (IRIVs). Vaccine17(13–14), 1782–1787 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gluck U, Gebbers JO, Gluck R. Phase 1 evaluation of intranasal virosomal influenza vaccine with and without Escherichia coli heat-labile toxin in adult volunteers. J. Virol.73(9), 7780–7786 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrera S, Fernandez OL, Vera O et al. Phase 1 safety and immunogenicity trial of Plasmodium vivax CS derived long synthetic peptides adjuvanted with montanide ISA 720 or montanide ISA 51. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.84(Suppl. 2), S12–S20 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahrsdorfer B, Weiner GJ. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides as immunotherapy in cancer. Update Cancer Ther.3(1), 27–32 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singh M, Carlson JR, Briones M et al. A comparison of biodegradable microparticles and MF59 as systemic adjuvants for recombinant gD from HSV-2. Vaccine16(19), 1822–1827 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valensi JP, Carlson JR, Van Nest GA. Systemic cytokine profiles in BALB/c mice immunized with trivalent influenza vaccine containing MF59 oil emulsion and other advanced adjuvants. J. Immunol.153(9), 4029–4039 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu W, Liu J, Gong W, Chen J, Zhu S, Zhang L. Protective immunity against Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection induced by a vaccine based on the major outer membrane multi-epitope human papillomavirus major capsid protein L1. Vaccine29, 2672–2678 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Diniz MO, Lasaro MO, Ertl HC, Ferreira LC. Immune responses and therapeutic antitumor effects of an experimental DNA vaccine encoding human papillomavirus type 16 oncoproteins genetically fused to herpesvirus glycoprotein D. Clin. Vacc. Immunol.17, 1576–1583 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ekong EE, Okenu DN, Mania-Pramanik J et al. A Vibrio cholerae ghost-based subunit vaccine induces cross-protective chlamydial immunity that is enhanced by CTA2B, the nontoxic derivative of cholera toxin. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol.55, 280–291 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eko FO, Ekong E, HE Q, Black CM, Igietseme JU. Induction of immune memory by a multisubunit chlamydial vaccine. Vaccine29, 1472–1480 (2011).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fisseha M, Chen P, Brandt C, Kijek T, Moran E, Zollinger W. Characterisation of native outer membrane vesicles from lpxL mutant strains of Neisseria meningitidis for use in parenteral vaccination. Infect. Immun.73, 4070–4080 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker CJ, Beagley KW, Hafner LM, Timms P. In silico identification and in vivo analysis of a novel T-cell antigen from Chlamydia, NrdB. Vaccine26(10), 1285–1296 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar