Animal models of autoimmune hepatitis

References

• Vergani D, Choudhuri K, Bogdanos DP, Mieli-Vergani G. Pathogenesis of autoimmune hepatitis. Clin. Liver Dis.6, 727–737 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Autoimmune hepatitis. Part A: pathogenesis. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.1, 113–128 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vergani D, Longhi MS, Bogdanos DP, Ma Y, Mieli-Vergani G. Autoimmune hepatitis. Semin. Immunopathol.31, 421–435 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation and other lessons of self-intolerance. Liver Transpl.8, 505–513 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Emerging opportunities for site-specific molecular and cellular interventions in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. DOI: 10.1007/s10620–009–1122–1128 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
   Google Scholar
• Lohse AW. Experimental models of autoimmune hepatitis. Semin. Liver Dis.11, 241–247 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters MG. Animal models of autoimmune liver disease. Immunol. Cell. Biol.80, 113–116 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaeckel E. Animal models of autoimmune hepatitis. Semin. Liver Dis.22, 325–338 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howell CD. Animal models of autoimmunity. Clin. Liver Dis.6, 775–783 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christen U, Holdener M, Hintermann E. Animal models for autoimmune hepatitis. Autoimmun. Rev.6, 306–311 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christen U, Hintermann E, Jaeckel E. New animal models for autoimmune hepatitis. Semin. Liver Dis.29, 262–272 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson DL, Gange SJ, Rose NR, Graham NM. Epidemiology and estimated population burden of selected autoimmune diseases in the United States. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol.84, 223–243 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boberg KM, Aadland E, Jahnsen J, Raknerud N, Stiris M, Bell H. Incidence and prevalence of primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and autoimmune hepatitis in a Norwegian population. Scand. J. Gastroenterol.33, 99–103 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner M, Prytz H, Ohlsson B et al. Epidemiology and the initial presentation of autoimmune hepatitis in Sweden: a nationwide study. Scand. J. Gastroenterol.43, 1232–1240 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook GC, Mulligan R, Sherlock S. Controlled prospective trial of corticosteroid therapy in active chronic hepatitis. Q. J. Med.40, 159–185 (1971).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soloway RD, Summerskill WH, Baggenstoss AH et al. Clinical, biochemical, and histological remission of severe chronic active liver disease: a controlled study of treatments and early prognosis. Gastroenterology63, 820–833 (1972).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray-Lyon IM, Stern RB, Williams R. Controlled trial of prednisone and azathioprine in active chronic hepatitis. Lancet1, 735–737 (1973).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Ammon HV, Summerskill WH. Clinical features and prognosis of severe chronic active liver disease (CALD) after corticosteroid-induced remission. Gastroenterology78, 518–523 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegarty JE, Nouri Aria KT, Portmann B, Eddleston AL, Williams R. Relapse following treatment withdrawal in patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology3, 685–689 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Menon KV, Carpenter HA. Sustained remission after corticosteroid therapy for type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: a retrospective analysis. Hepatology35, 890–897 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis GL, Czaja AJ, Ludwig J. Development and prognosis of histologic cirrhosis in corticosteroid-treated hepatitis B surface antigen-negative chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology87, 1222–1227 (1984).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts SK, Therneau TM, Czaja AJ. Prognosis of histological cirrhosis in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology110, 848–857 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Consequences of treatment withdrawal in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int.27, 507–515 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Predictive factors for hepatocellular carcinoma in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol.103, 1944–1951 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeoman AD, Al-Chalabi T, Karani JB et al. Evaluation of risk factors in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in autoimmune hepatitis: implications for follow-up and screening. Hepatology48, 863–870 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregorio GV, Portmann B, Reid F et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in childhood: a 20-year experience. Hepatology25, 541–547 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Distinctive clinical phenotype and treatment outcome of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in the elderly. Hepatology43, 532–538 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Difficult treatment decisions in autoimmune hepatitis. World J. Gastroenterol.16, 934–947 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Current and future treatments of autoimmune hepatitis. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.3, 269–291 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Diverse manifestations and evolving treatments of autoimmune hepatitis. Minerva Gastroenterol. Dietol.51, 313–333 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Bayraktar Y. Non-classical phenotypes of autoimmune hepatitis and advances in diagnosis and treatment. World J. Gastroenterol.15, 2314–2328 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Special clinical challenges in autoimmune hepatitis: the elderly, males, pregnancy, mild disease, fulminant onset, and nonwhite patients. Semin. Liver Dis.29, 315–330 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert LJ, Inman RD. Molecular mimicry and autoimmunity. N. Engl. J. Med.341, 2068–2074 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogdanos DP, Choudhuri K, Vergani D. Molecular mimicry and autoimmune liver disease: virtuous intentions, malign consequences. Liver21, 225–232 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bogdanos DP, Lenzi M, Okamoto M et al. Multiple viral/self immunological cross-reactivity in liver kidney microsomal antibody positive hepatitis C virus infected patients is associated with the possession of HLA B51. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol.17, 83–92 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christen U, von Herrath MG. Induction, acceleration or prevention of autoimmunity by molecular mimicry. Mol. Immunol.40, 1113–1120 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowen DG. Of mice and molecular mimicry: modeling autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology48, 1013–1015 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christen U, Hintermann E, Holdener M, von Herrath MG. Viral triggers for autoimmunity: is the ‘glass of molecular mimicry’ half full or half empty? J. Autoimmun.34, 38–44 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oldstone MB. Molecular mimicry and immune-mediated diseases. FASEB J.12, 1255–1265 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose NR, Mackay IR. Molecular mimicry: a critical look at exemplary instances in human diseases. Cell. Mol. Life Sci.57, 542–551 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kammer AR, van der Burg SH, Grabscheid B et al. Molecular mimicry of human cytochrome P450 by hepatitis C virus at the level of cytotoxic T cell recognition. J. Exp. Med.190, 169–176 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel A, Manns MP, Strassburg CP. Autoimmunity and viruses. Clin. Liver Dis.6, 739–753 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Donaldson PT. Genetic susceptibilities for immune expression and liver cell injury in autoimmune hepatitis. Immunol. Rev.174, 250–259 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Doherty DG, Donaldson PT. Genetic bases of autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci.47, 2139–2150 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Genetic factors affecting the occurrence, clinical phenotype, and outcome of autoimmune hepatitis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.6, 379–388 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strettell MD, Donaldson PT, Thomson LJ et al. Allelic basis for HLA-encoded susceptibility to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology112, 2028–2035 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Strettell MD, Thomson LJ et al. Associations between alleles of the major histocompatibility complex and type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology25, 317–323 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vazquez-Garcia MN, Alaez C, Olivo A et al. MHC class II sequences of susceptibility and protection in Mexicans with autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol.28, 985–990 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seki T, Ota M, Furuta S et al. HLA class II molecules and autoimmune hepatitis susceptibility in Japanese patients. Gastroenterology103, 1041–1047 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshizawa K, Ota M, Katsuyama Y et al. Genetic analysis of the HLA region of Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol.42, 578–584 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiu DK, Ma X. Relationship between human leukocyte antigen-DRB1 and autoimmune hepatitis type I in Chinese patients. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.18, 63–67 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pando M, Larriba J, Fernandez GC et al. Pediatric and adult forms of type I autoimmune hepatitis in Argentina: evidence for differential genetic predisposition. Hepatology30, 1374–1380 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg AC, Bittencourt PL, Mougin B et al. Analysis of HLA haplotypes in autoimmune hepatitis type 1: identifying the major susceptibility locus. Hum. Immunol.62, 165–169 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Souto EO, Bittencourt PL et al. Clinical distinctions and pathogenic implications of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Brazil and the United States. J. Hepatol.37, 302–308 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortes Mdel P, Machado IV, Gil G et al. Genetic contribution of major histocompatibility complex class II region to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis susceptibility in Venezuela. Liver Int.27, 1409–1416 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bittencourt PL, Goldberg AC, Cancado EL et al. Genetic heterogeneity in susceptibility to autoimmune hepatitis types 1 and 2. Am. J. Gastroenterol.94, 1906–1913 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma Y, Bogdanos DP, Hussain MJ et al. Polyclonal T-cell responses to cytochrome P450IID6 are associated with disease activity in autoimmune hepatitis type 2. Gastroenterology130, 868–882 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Kruger M, Santrach PJ, Moore SB, Manns MP. Genetic distinctions between types 1 and 2 autoimmune hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol.92, 2197–2200 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Djilali-Saiah I, Fakhfakh A, Louafi H, Caillat-Zucman S, Debray D, Alvarez F. HLA class II influences humoral autoimmunity in patients with type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol.45, 844–850 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapierre P, Beland K, Djilali-Saiah I, Alvarez F. Type 2 autoimmune hepatitis murine model: the influence of genetic background in disease development. J. Autoimmun.26, 82–89 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters M. Actions of cytokines on the immune response and viral interactions: an overview. Hepatology23, 909–916 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohr HF, Schlaak JF, Gerken G, Fleischer B, Dienes HP, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH. Phenotypical analysis and cytokine release of liver-infiltrating and peripheral blood T lymphocytes from patients with chronic hepatitis of different etiology. Liver14, 161–166 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Sievers C, Zein NN. Nature and behavior of serum cytokines in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci.45, 1028–1035 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perruche S, Zhang P, Liu Y, Saas P, Bluestone JA, Chen W. CD3-specific antibody-induced immune tolerance involves transforming growth factor-β from phagocytes digesting apoptotic T cells. Nat. Med.14, 528–535 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayer EM, Herr W, Kanzler S et al. Transforming growth factor-β1 in autoimmune hepatitis: correlation of liver tissue expression and serum levels with disease activity. J. Hepatol.28, 803–811 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schramm C, Protschka M, Kohler HH et al. Impairment of TGF-β signaling in T cells increases susceptibility to experimental autoimmune hepatitis in mice. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.284, G525–G535 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longhi MS, Ma Y, Mitry RR et al. Effect of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T-cells on CD8 T-cell function in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J. Autoimmun.25, 63–71 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longhi MS, Hussain MJ, Mitry RR et al. Functional study of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells in health and autoimmune hepatitis. J. Immunol.176, 4484–4491 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang C, Zhang J, Tian Z. The regulatory effect of natural killer cells: do “NK-reg cells” exist? Cell. Mol. Immunol.3, 241–254 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lalazar G, Preston S, Zigmond E, Ben Yaacov A, Ilan Y. Glycolipids as immune modulatory tools. Mini Rev. Med. Chem.6, 1249–1253 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawamura H, Aswad F, Minagawa M, Govindarajan S, Dennert G. P2X7 receptors regulate NKT cells in autoimmune hepatitis. J. Immunol.176, 2152–2160 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowak M, Stein-Streilein J. Invariant NKT cells and tolerance. Int. Rev. Immunol.26, 95–119 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Manns MP. Advances in the diagnosis, pathogenesis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology139, 58–72 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridkis-Hareli M, Rosloniec EF, Fugger L, Strominger JL. Synthetic peptides that inhibit binding of the collagen type II 261–273 epitope to rheumatoid arthritis-associated HLA-DR1 and -DR4 molecules and collagen-specific T-cell responses. Hum. Immunol.61, 640–650 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korhonen R, Moilanen E. Abatacept, a novel CD80/86-CD28 T cell co-stimulation modulator, in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol.104, 276–284 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutgeerts P, D’Haens G, Targan S et al. Efficacy and safety of retreatment with anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody (infliximab) to maintain remission in Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology117, 761–769 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keymeulen B, Vandemeulebroucke E, Ziegler AG et al. Insulin needs after CD3-antibody therapy in new-onset Type 1 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med.352, 2598–2608 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson DR, Tu Z, Soldevila-Pico C et al. Long-term interleukin 10 therapy in chronic hepatitis C patients has a proviral and anti-inflammatory effect. Hepatology38, 859–868 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohse AW, Dienes HP, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH. Suppression of murine experimental autoimmune hepatitis by T-cell vaccination or immunosuppression. Hepatology27, 1536–1543 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagler A, Pines M, Abadi U et al. Oral tolerization ameliorates liver disorders associated with chronic graft versus host disease in mice. Hepatology31, 641–648 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longhi MS, Meda F, Wang P et al. Expansion and de novo generation of potentially therapeutic regulatory T cells in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology47, 581–591 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr TA, Davidson NO. Therapeutic RNA manipulation in liver disease. Hepatology51, 1055–1061(2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crispe IN. Hepatic T cells and liver tolerance. Nat. Rev. Immunol.3, 51–62 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crispe IN, Giannandrea M, Klein I, John B, Sampson B, Wuensch S. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of liver tolerance. Immunol. Rev.213, 101–118 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benseler V, McCaughan GW, Schlitt HJ, Bishop GA, Bowen DG, Bertolino P. The liver: a special case in transplantation tolerance. Semin. Liver Dis.27, 194–213 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez-Koch A, Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA et al. Recurrent autoimmune hepatitis after orthotopic liver transplantation. Liver Transpl.7, 302–310 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qian S, Demetris AJ, Murase N, Rao AS, Fung JJ, Starzl TE. Murine liver allograft transplantation: tolerance and donor cell chimerism. Hepatology19, 916–924 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerut J, Sanchez-Fueyo A. An appraisal of tolerance in liver transplantation. Am. J. Transplant.6, 1774–1780 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demetris AJ, Lunz JG 3rd, Randhawa P, Wu T, Nalesnik M, Thomson AW. Monitoring of human liver and kidney allograft tolerance: a tissue/histopathology perspective. Transpl. Int.22, 120–141 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orlando G, Soker S, Wood K. Operational tolerance after liver transplantation. J. Hepatol.50, 1247–1257 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wardrop RM, 3rd, Whitacre CC. Oral tolerance in the treatment of inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Inflamm. Res.48, 106–119 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohse AW, Knolle PA, Bilo K et al. Antigen-presenting function and B7 expression of murine sinusoidal endothelial cells and Kupffer cells. Gastroenterology110, 1175–1181 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bumgardner GL, Li J, Heininger M, Ferguson RM, Orosz CG. In vivo immunogenicity of purified allogeneic hepatocytes in a murine hepatocyte transplant model. Transplantation65, 47–52 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howell CD, Yoder TD. Murine experimental autoimmune hepatitis: nonspecific inflammation due to adjuvant oil. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol.72, 76–82 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hanninen A, Harrison LC. Mucosal tolerance to prevent Type 1 diabetes: can the outcome be improved in humans? Rev. Diabet. Stud.1, 113–121 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Buschenfelde KH, Kossling FK, Miescher PA. Experimental chronic active hepatitis in rabbits following immunization with human liver proteins. Clin. Exp. Immunol.11, 99–108 (1972).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuriki J, Murakami H, Kakumu S et al. Experimental autoimmune hepatitis in mice after immunization with syngeneic liver proteins together with the polysaccharide of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Gastroenterology84, 596–603 (1983).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohse AW, Manns M, Dienes HP, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH, Cohen IR. Experimental autoimmune hepatitis: disease induction, time course and T-cell reactivity. Hepatology11, 24–30 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe Y, Kawakami H, Kawamoto H et al. Effect of neonatal thymectomy on experimental autoimmune hepatitis in mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol.67, 105–113 (1987).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asano M, Toda M, Sakaguchi N, Sakaguchi S. Autoimmune disease as a consequence of developmental abnormality of a T cell subpopulation. J. Exp. Med.184, 387–396 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilg H, Wilmer A, Vogel W et al. Serum levels of cytokines in chronic liver diseases. Gastroenterology103, 264–274 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• al-Wabel A, al-Janadi M, Raziuddin S. Cytokine profile of viral and autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.92, 902–908 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlaak JF, Lohr H, Gallati H, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH, Fleischer B. Analysis of the in vitro cytokine production by liver-infiltrating T cells of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Clin. Exp. Immunol.94, 168–173 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maggiore G, De Benedetti F, Massa M, Pignatti P, Martini A. Circulating levels of interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α in children with autoimmune hepatitis. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.20, 23–27 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiegs G. Experimental hepatitis and role of cytokines. Acta Gastroenterol. Belg.60, 176–179 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiegs G. Cellular and cytokine-mediated mechanisms of inflammation and its modulation in immune-mediated liver injury. Z. Gastroenterol.45, 63–70 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kusters S, Gantner F, Kunstle G, Tiegs G. Interferon γ plays a critical role in T cell-dependent liver injury in mice initiated by concanavalin A. Gastroenterology111, 462–471 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gantner F, Leist M, Lohse AW, Germann PG, Tiegs G. Concanavalin A-induced T-cell-mediated hepatic injury in mice: the role of tumor necrosis factor. Hepatology21, 190–198 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja MJ, Weiner FR, Flanders KC et al.In vitro and in vivo association of transforming growth factor-β 1 with hepatic fibrosis. J. Cell Biol.108, 2477–2482 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudner LA, Lin JT, Park IK et al. Necroinflammatory liver disease in BALB/c background, TGF-β 1-deficient mice requires CD4+ T cells. J. Immunol.170, 4785–4792 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiegs G, Hentschel J, Wendel A. A T cell-dependent experimental liver injury in mice inducible by concanavalin A. J. Clin. Invest.90, 196–203 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knolle PA, Gerken G, Loser E et al. Role of sinusoidal endothelial cells of the liver in concanavalin A-induced hepatic injury in mice. Hepatology24, 824–829 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeda K, Hayakawa Y, Van Kaer L, Matsuda H, Yagita H, Okumura K. Critical contribution of liver natural killer T cells to a murine model of hepatitis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA97, 5498–5503 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfer DP, Crusio WE, Lipp HP. Knockout mice: simple solutions to the problems of genetic background and flanking genes. Trends Neurosci.25, 336–340 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Austin CP, Battey JF, Bradley A et al. The knockout mouse project. Nat. Genet.36, 921–924 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capecchi MR. Gene targeting in mice: functional analysis of the mammalian genome for the twenty-first century. Nat. Rev. Genet.6, 507–512 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Games D, Buttini M, Kobayashi D, Schenk D, Seubert P. Mice as models: transgenic approaches and Alzheimer’s disease. J. Alzheimers Dis.9, 133–149 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamsai D, Zaibak F, Vadolas J et al. A humanized BAC transgenic/knockout mouse model for HbE/β-thalassemia. Genomics88, 309–315 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hims MM, Shetty RS, Pickel J et al. A humanized IKBKAP transgenic mouse models a tissue-specific human splicing defect. Genomics90, 389–396 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson T, Greiner DL, Shultz LD. Creation of ‘humanized’ mice to study human immunity. Curr. Protoc. Immunol. Chapter 15, Unit 15 21 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Toyonaga T, Hino O, Sugai S et al. Chronic active hepatitis in transgenic mice expressing interferon-g in the liver. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA91, 614–618 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein L, Klein T, Ruther U, Kyewski B. CD4 T cell tolerance to human C-reactive protein, an inducible serum protein, is mediated by medullary thymic epithelium. J. Exp. Med.188, 5–16 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein L, Kyewski B. ‘Promiscuous’ expression of tissue antigens in the thymus: a key to T-cell tolerance and autoimmunity? J. Mol. Med.78, 483–494 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moriyama T, Guilhot S, Klopchin K et al. Immunobiology and pathogenesis of hepatocellular injury in hepatitis B virus transgenic mice. Science248, 361–364 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voehringer D, Blaser C, Grawitz AB, Chisari FV, Buerki K, Pircher H. Break of T cell ignorance to a viral antigen in the liver induces hepatitis. J. Immunol.165, 2415–2422 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamaki S, Homma S, Enomoto Y et al. Autoimmune hepatic inflammation by vaccination of mice with dendritic cells loaded with well-differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma cells and administration of interleukin-12. Clin. Immunol.117, 280–293 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Herrath MG, Fujinami RS, Whitton JL. Microorganisms and autoimmunity: making the barren field fertile? Nat. Rev. Microbiol.1, 151–157 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzitelli A, Berthier R, Collin V, Candeias SM, Marche PN. T lymphocytes potentiate murine dendritic cells to produce IL-12. J. Immunol.169, 4237–4245 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKnight AJ, Zimmer GJ, Fogelman I, Wolf SF, Abbas AK. Effects of IL-12 on helper T cell-dependent immune responses in vivo. J. Immunol.152, 2172–2179 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang KS, Frank DA, Ritz J. Interleukin-2 enhances the response of natural killer cells to interleukin-12 through up-regulation of the interleukin-12 receptor and STAT4. Blood95, 3183–3190 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Djilali-Saiah I, Lapierre P, Vittozi S, Alvarez F. DNA vaccination breaks tolerance for a neo-self antigen in liver: a transgenic murine model of autoimmune hepatitis. J. Immunol.169, 4889–4896 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ, Manns MP. The validity and importance of subtypes in autoimmune hepatitis: a point of view. Am. J. Gastroenterol.90, 1206–1211 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapierre P, Djilali-Saiah I, Vitozzi S, Alvarez F. A murine model of type 2 autoimmune hepatitis: xenoimmunization with human antigens. Hepatology39, 1066–1074 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christen U, Edelmann KH, McGavern DB et al. A viral epitope that mimics a self antigen can accelerate but not initiate autoimmune diabetes. J. Clin. Invest.114, 1290–1298 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holdener M, Hintermann E, Bayer M et al. Breaking tolerance to the natural human liver autoantigen cytochrome P450 2D6 by virus infection. J. Exp. Med.205, 1409–1422 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christen U, Holdener M, Hintermann E. Cytochrome P450 2D6 as a model antigen. Dig. Dis.28, 80–85 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardtke-Wolenski M, Jaeckel E. Mouse models for experimental autoimmune hepatitis: limits and chances. Dig. Dis.28, 70–79 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zierden M, Kuhnen E, Odenthal M, Dienes HP. Effects and regulation of autoreactive CD8+ T cells in a transgenic mouse model of autoimmune hepatitis. GastroenterologyDOI: 10.1053/j.gastro. 2010.05.075 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty DG, Penzotti JE, Koelle DM et al. Structural basis of specificity and degeneracy of T cell recognition: pluriallelic restriction of T cell responses to a peptide antigen involves both specific and promiscuous interactions between the T cell receptor, peptide, and HLA-DR. J. Immunol.161, 3527–3535 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Clinical features, differential diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in the elderly. Drugs Aging25, 219–239 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speeti M, Ihantola M, Westermarck E. Subclinical versus clinical hepatitis in the dobermann: evaluation of changes in blood parameters. J. Small Anim. Pract.37, 465–470 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speeti M, Eriksson J, Saari S, Westermarck E. Lesions of subclinical doberman hepatitis. Vet. Pathol.35, 361–369 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speeti M, Stahls A, Meri S, Westermarck E. Upregulation of major histocompatibility complex class II antigens in hepatocytes in Doberman hepatitis. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol.96, 1–12 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson PJ. Chronic hepatitis in dogs: a review of current understanding of the aetiology, progression, and treatment. Vet. J.167, 228–241 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandigers PJ, van den Ingh TS, Spee B, Penning LC, Bode P, Rothuizen J. Chronic hepatitis in Doberman pinschers. A review. Vet. Q.26, 98–106 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan J, Watanabe T. Transgenic rabbits as therapeutic protein bioreactors and human disease models. Pharmacol. Ther.99, 261–282 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohr H, Treichel U, Poralla T, Manns M, Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH, Fleischer B. The human hepatic asialoglycoprotein receptor is a target antigen for liver-infiltrating T cells in autoimmune chronic active hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis. Hepatology12, 1314–1320 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poralla T, Treichel U, Lohr H, Fleischer B. The asialoglycoprotein receptor as target structure in autoimmune liver diseases. Semin. Liver Dis.11, 215–222 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer zum Buschenfelde KH, Treichel U, Lohr H, Fleischer B, Poralla T. Human asialoglycoprotein receptor as an autoantigen in chronic hepatitis. Immunol. Res.10, 497–502 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa M, Rodriguez-Sanchez JL, Czaja AJ, Gelpi C. Isolation and characterization of cDNA encoding the antigenic protein of the human tRNP(Ser)Sec complex recognized by autoantibodies from patients withtype-1 autoimmune hepatitis. Clin. Exp. Immunol.121, 364–374 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wies I, Brunner S, Henninger J et al. Identification of target antigen for SLA/LP autoantibodies in autoimmune hepatitis. Lancet355, 1510–1515 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkmann M, Martin L, Baurle A et al. Soluble liver antigen: isolation of a 35-kd recombinant protein (SLA-p35) specifically recognizing sera from patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology33, 591–596 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gueguen P, Dalekos G, Nousbaum JB et al. Double reactivity against actin and α-actinin defines a severe form of autoimmune hepatitis type 1. J. Clin. Immunol.26, 495–505 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renaudineau Y, Dalekos GN, Gueguen P, Zachou K, Youinou P. Anti-α-actinin antibodies cross-react with anti-ssDNA antibodies in active autoimmune hepatitis. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol.34, 321–325 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obermayer-Straub P, Manns MP. Cytochromes P450 and UDP-glucuronosyl-transferases as hepatocellular autoantigens. Baillieres Clin. Gastroenterol.10, 501–532 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manns MP, Obermayer-Straub P. Cytochromes P450 and uridine triphosphate-glucuronosyltransferases: model autoantigens to study drug-induced, virus-induced, and autoimmune liver disease. Hepatology26, 1054–1066 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obermayer-Straub P, Strassburg CP, Manns MP. Target proteins in human autoimmunity: cytochromes P450 and UDP- glucuronosyltransferases. Can. J. Gastroenterol.14, 429–439 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czaja AJ. Autoimmune hepatitis. Part B: diagnosis. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.1, 129–143 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gough A, Chapman S, Wagstaff K, Emery P, Elias E. Minocycline induced autoimmune hepatitis and systemic lupus erythematosus-like syndrome. BMJ312, 169–172 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helfgott SM, Sandberg-Cook J, Zakim D, Nestler J. Diclofenac-associated hepatotoxicity. JAMA264, 2660–2662 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scully LJ, Clarke D, Barr RJ. Diclofenac induced hepatitis. 3 cases with features of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci.38, 744–751 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germano V, Picchianti Diamanti A, Baccano G et al. Autoimmune hepatitis associated with infliximab in a patient with psoriatic arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis.64, 1519–1520 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fedotin MS, Lefer LG. Liver disease caused by propylthiouracil. Arch. Intern. Med.135, 319–321 (1975).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van Heyningen C. Drug-induced acute autoimmune hepatitis during combination therapy with atorvastatin and ezetimibe. Ann. Clin. Biochem.42, 402–404 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp JR, Ishak KG, Zimmerman HJ. Chronic active hepatitis and severe hepatic necrosis associated with nitrofurantoin. Ann. Intern. Med.92, 14–19 (1980).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev O, Mosseri M, Ariel I, Stalnikowicz R. Methyldopa-induced immune hemolytic anemia and chronic active hepatitis. Arch. Intern. Med.143, 592–593 (1983).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Black M, Mitchell JR, Zimmerman HJ, Ishak KG, Epler GR. Isoniazid-associated hepatitis in 114 patients. Gastroenterology69, 289–302 (1975).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamiyama T, Nouchi T, Kojima S, Murata N, Ikeda T, Sato C. Autoimmune hepatitis triggered by administration of an herbal medicine. Am. J. Gastroenterol.92, 703–704 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen SM, O’Connor AM, Hart J, Merel NH, Te HS. Autoimmune hepatitis associated with the use of black cohosh: a case study. Menopause11, 575–577 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veerappan GR, Mulhall BP, Holtzmuller KC. Vaccination-induced autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci.50, 212–213 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu ZX, Kaplowitz N. Immune-mediated drug-induced liver disease. Clin. Liver Dis.6, 755–774 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bourdi M, Gautier JC, Mircheva J et al. Anti-liver microsomes autoantibodies and dihydralazine-induced hepatitis: specificity of autoantibodies and inductive capacity of the drug. Mol. Pharmacol.42, 280–285 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourdi M, Tinel M, Beaune PH, Pessayre D. Interactions of dihydralazine with cytochromes P4501A: a possible explanation for the appearance of anti-cytochrome P4501A2 autoantibodies. Mol. Pharmacol.45, 1287–1295 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manns MP, Griffin KJ, Quattrochi LC et al. Identification of cytochrome P450IA2 as a human autoantigen. Arch. Biochem. Biophys.280, 229–232 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obermayer-Straub P, Perheentupa J, Braun S et al. Hepatic autoantigens in patients with autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy. Gastroenterology121, 668–677 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagamine K, Peterson P, Scott HS et al. Positional cloning of the APECED gene. Nat. Genet.17, 393–398 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty DG, Donaldson PT, Underhill JA et al. Allelic sequence variation in the HLA class II genes and proteins in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology19, 609–615 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manns MP, Czaja AJ, Gorham JD et al. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology51, 2193–2213 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiocco U, Sfriso P, Oliviero F et al. Co-stimulatory modulation in rheumatoid arthritis: the role of (CTLA4-Ig) abatacept. Autoimmun. Rev.8, 76–82 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell L, Singh JA. Abatacept for rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.4, CD007277 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Nelson DR, Lauwers GY, Lau JY, Davis GL. Interleukin 10 treatment reduces fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a pilot trial of interferon nonresponders. Gastroenterology118, 655–660 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li MC, He SH. IL-10 and its related cytokines for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. World J. Gastroenterol.10, 620–625 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatenoud L. Anti-CD3 antibodies: towards clinical antigen-specific immunomodulation. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol.4, 403–407 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishikawa H, Ochi H, Chen ML, Frenkel D, Maron R, Weiner HL. Inhibition of autoimmune diabetes by oral administration of anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody. Diabetes56, 2103–2109 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar