Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and hyperglycosylated hCG: the mediators that control human pregnancy

References

• Aschner B. Ueber die function der hypophyse. Pflug. Arch. Gest. Physiol.146, 1–147 (1912).
   Google Scholar
• Fellner OO. Experimentelle untersuchungen uber die wirkung von gewebsextrakten aus der plazenta und den weiblichen sexualorganen auf das genital. Arch. Gynakol.100, 641 (1913).
   Google Scholar
• Hirose T. Experimentalle histologische studie zur genese corpus luteum. Mitt. Med. Fakultd. Univ. ZU23, 63–70 (1919).
   Google Scholar
• Aschheim S, Zondek B. Das hormon des hypophysenvorderlappens: testobjekt zum Nachweis des hormons. Klin. Wochenschr.6, 248–252 (1927).
   Google Scholar
• Hunter MG, Baker TG. Effect of hCG, cAMP and FSH on steroidogenesis by human corpora lutea in vitro. J. Reprod. Fert.63, 285–288 (1981).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Strott CA, Yoshimi T, Ross GT, Lipsett MB. Ovarian physiology: relationship between plasma LH and steroidogenesis by the follicle and corpus luteum; effect of hCG. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.29, 1157–1167 (1969).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cedard L, Varangot J, Yannotti S. The metabolism of estrogens in human placentas artificially maintained in survival by perfusion in vitro. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci.254, 1870–1871 (1962).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Azuma K, Calderon I, Besanko M, MacLachlan V, Healy DL. Is the luteo-placental shift a myth? Analysis of low progesterone levels in successful ART pregnancies. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.77, 195–198 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mayerhofer A, Fritz S, Grunert R et al. D1-receptor, DARPP-32, and PP-1 in the primate corpus luteum and luteinized granulosa cells: evidence for phosphorylation of DARPP-32 by dopamine and human chorionic gonadotropin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.85, 4750–4757 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pierce JG, Parsons TF. Glycoprotein hormones: structure and function. Ann. Rev. Biochem.50, 65–95 (1981).
   Google Scholar
• Rao CV. Differential properties of human chorionic gonadotropin and human luteinizing hormone binding to plasma membranes of bovine corpora luteal. Acta Endocrinol.90, 696–710 (1979).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Berndt S, Blacher S, Perrier d’Hauterive S. Chorionic gonadotropin stimulation of angiogenesis and pericyte recruitment. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.94, 4567–4574 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Toth P, Li X, Rao CV et al. Expression of functional human chorionic gonadotropin/human luteinizing hormone receptor gene in human uterine arteries. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.79, 307–315 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lei ZM, Reshef E, Rao CV. The expression of human chorionic gonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptors in human endometrial and myometrial blood vessels. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.75, 651–659 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zygmunt M, Herr F, Keller-Schoenwetter S et al. Characterization of human chorionic gonadotropin as a novel angiogenic factor. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.87, 5290–5296 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herr F, Baal N, Reisinger K et al. hCG in the regulation of placental angiogenesis. Results of an in vitro study. Placenta28(Suppl. A), S85–S93 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zygmunt M, Herr F, Munstedt K, Lang U, Liang OD. Angiogenesis and vasculogenesis in pregnancy. Euro. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol.110(Suppl. 1), S10–S18 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toth P, Lukacs H, Gimes G et al. Clinical importance of vascular hCG/LH receptors – a review. Reprod. Biol.1, 5–11 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shi QJ, Lei ZM, Rao CV, Lin J. Novel role of human chorionic gonadotropin in differentiation of human cytotrophoblasts. Endocrinology132, 387–395 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Cronier L, Bastide B, Herve JC, Deleze J, Malassine A. Gap junctional communication during human trophoblast differentiation: influence of human chorionic gonadotropin. Endocrinology135, 402–408 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Akoum A, Metz CN, Morin M. Marked increase in macrophage migration inhibitory factor synthesis and secretion in human endometrial cells in response to human chorionic gonadotropin hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90, 2904–2910 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matsuura T, Sugimura M, Iwaki T, Ohashi R, Kanayama N, Nishihira J. Anti-macrophage inhibitory factor antibody inhibits PMSG-hCG-induced follicular growth and ovulation in mice. J. Assist. Reprod. Genet.19, 591–595 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wan H, Marjan A, Cheung VW et al. Chorionic gonadotropin can enhance innate immunity by stimulating macrophage function. J. Leukocyte Biol.82, 926–933 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kamada M, Ino H, Naka O et al. Immunosuppressive 30-kDa protein in urine of pregnant women and patients with trophoblastic diseases. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol.50, 219–225 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Noonan FP, Halliday WJ, Morton H, Clunie GJA. Early pregnancy factor is immunosuppressive. Nature278, 649–651 (1879).
   Google Scholar
• Majumdar S, Bapna BC, Mapa MK, Gupta AN, Devi PK, Subrahmanyam D. Pregnancy specific proteins: suppression of in vitro blastogenic response to mitogen by these proteins. Int. J. Fertil.27, 66–69 (1982).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reshef E, Lei ZM, Rao CV, Pridham DD, Chegini N, Luborsky JL. The presence of gonadotropin receptors in nonpregnant human uterus, human placenta, fetal membranes, and decidua. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.70, 421–430 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuo J, Lei ZM, Rao CV. Human myometrial chorionic gonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptors in preterm and term deliveries. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.79, 907–911 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eta E, Ambrus G, Rao V. Direct regulation of human myometrial contractions by human chorionic gonadotropin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.79, 1582–1586 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doheny HC, Houlihan DD, Ravikumar N, Smith TJ, Morrison JJ. Human chorionic gonadotrophin relaxation of human pregnant myometrium and activation of the BKCa channel. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.88, 4310–4315 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edelstam G, Karlsson C, Westgren M, Löwbeer C, Swahn ML. Human chorionic gonadatropin (hCG) during third trimester pregnancy. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest.67, 519–525 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldsmith PC, McGregor WG, Raymoure WJ, Kuhn RW, Jaffe RB. Cellular localization of chorionic gonadotropin in human fetal kidney and liver. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.57, 54–61 (1983).
   Google Scholar
• Abdallah MA, Lei ZM, Li X et al. Human fetal nongonadal tissues contain human chorionic gonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptors. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.89, 952–956 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rao CV. Paradigm shift on the targets of hCG actions (chapter 11). In: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG). Cole LA (Ed.). Elsevier, Oxford, UK (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Rao CV. Nongonadal actions of LH and hCG in reproductive biology and medicine. Semin. Reprod. Med.19, 1–119 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao CV. An overview of the past, present and future of nongonadal hCG/LH actions in reproductive biology and medicine. Sem. Reprod. Endocrinol.19, 7–17 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Rao CV, Lei ZM. The past, present and future of nongonadal hCG/LH actions in reproductive biology and medicine. Mol. Cell Endocrinol.269, 2–8 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGregor WG, Raymoure WJ, Kuhn RW, Jaffe RB. Fetal tissues can synthesize a placental hormone. Evidence for chorionic gonadotropin β-subunit synthesis by human fetal kidney. J. Clin. Invest.68, 306–309 (1981).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rao CV, Li X, Toth P, Lei ZM. Expression of epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor-α and their common receptor genes in human umbilical cords. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.80, 1012–1020 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rao CV, Li X, Toth P, Lei ZM, Cook VD. Novel expression of functional human chorionic gonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptor in human umbilical cords. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.77, 1706–1714 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasowicz, Derecka K, Stepien A et al. Evidence for the presence of luteinizing hormone–chorionic gonadotrophin receptors in the pig umbilical cord. J. Reprod. Fertil.117, 1–9 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohlsson R, Larsson E, Nilsson O, Wahlstrom T, Sundstrom P. Blastocyst implantation precedes induction of insulin-like growth factor II gene expression in human trophoblasts. Development106, 555–559 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrierd’Hauterive S, Berndt BS, Tsampalas M et al. Dialogue between blastocyst hCG and endometrial hCG/LH receptor: which role in implantation? Gynecol. Obstet. Invest.64, 156–160 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Joshi NJ, Nandedkar TD. Effects of intrauterine instillation of antiserum to hCG during early pregnancy in mice. Acta Endocrinol.107, 268–274 (1984).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Srisuparp S, Strakova Z, Fazleabas AT. The role of chorionic gonadotropin (CG) in blastocyst implantation. Arch. Med. Res.32, 627–634 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eblan A, Bao S, Lei ZM, Nakajima ST, Rao CV. The presence of functional luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor in human sperm. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.86, 2643–2648 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsampalasa M, Grideleta V, Berndt S, Foidart JM, Geenena V, Perrier d’Hauterive S. Human chorionic gonadotropin: a hormone with immunological and angiogenic properties. J. Repod. Immunol.85(1), 93–98 (2010).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Licht P, Russu V, Wildt L. On the role of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the embryo–endometrial microenvironment: implications for differentiation and implantation. Semin. Reprod. Med.19(1), 37–47 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lei ZM, Toth P, Rao CV, Pridham D. Novel coexpression of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)/human luteinizing hormone receptors and their ligand hCG in human Fallopian tubes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.77, 863–872 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao CV. Physiological and pathological relevance of human uterine hCG/LH receptors. J. Soc. Gynecol. Invest.13, 77–78 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gawronska B, Paukku T, Huhtaniemi I, Wasowicz G, Ziecik AJ. Oestrogen-dependent expression of hCG/LH receptors in pig Fallopian tube and their role in relaxation of the oviduct. J. Reprod. Fertil.115, 293–301 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lei ZM, Rao CV, Kornyei J, Licht P, Hiatt ES. Novel expression of human chorionic gonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptor gene in brain. Endocrinology132, 262–270 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Rao CV. Immunocytochemical localization of gonadotropin and gonadal steroid receptors in human pineal glands. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.82, 2756–2757 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elliott MM, Kardana A, Lustbader JW, Cole LA. Carbohydrate and peptide structure of the α- and β-subunits of human chorionic gonadotropin from normal and aberrant pregnancy and choriocarcinoma. Endocrine7, 15–32 (1977).
   Google Scholar
• Valmu L, Alfthan H, Hotakainen K, Birken S, Stenman UH. Site-specific glycan analysis of human chorionic gonadotropin β-subunit from malignancies and pregnancy by liquid chromatography – electrospray mass spectrometry. Glycobiology16, 1207–1218 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovalevskaya G, Genbacev O, Fisher SJ, Cacere E, O’Connor JF. Trophoblast origin of hCG isoforms: cytotrophoblasts are the primary source of choriocarcinoma-like hCG. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol.194, 147–155 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handschuh K, Guibourdenche J, Tsatsaris V et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin expression in human trophoblasts from early placenta: comparative study between villous and extravillous trophoblastic cells. Placenta28, 175–184 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sasaki Y, Ladner DG, Cole LA. Hyperglycosylated hCG the source of pregnancy failures. Fertil. Steril.89, 1871–1786 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Cole LA, Dai D, Butler SA, Leslie KK, Kohorn EI. Gestational trophoblastic diseases: 1. Pathophysiology of hyperglycosylated hCG-regulated neoplasia. Gynecol. Oncol.102, 144–149 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Cole LA, Khanlian SA, Riley JM, Butler SA. Hyperglycosylated hCG (hCG-H) in gestational implantation, and in choriocarcinoma and testicular germ cell malignancy tumorigenesis. J. Reprod. Med.51, 919–929 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole LA. Biological functions of hyperglycosylated hCG. In: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) (Chapter 13). Cole LA (Ed.). Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 145–152 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Handschuh K, Guibourdenche J, Tsatsaris V et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin produced by the invasive trophoblast but not the villous trophoblast promotes cell invasion and is down-regulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ. Endocrinology148, 5011–5019 (2007).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guibourdenche J, Handschuh K, Tsatsaris V et al. Hyperglycosylated hCG is a marker of early human trophoblast invasion. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.95, E240–E244 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly LS, Birken S, Puett D. Determination of hyperglycosylated human chorionic gonadotropin produced by malignant gestational trophoblastic neoplasias and male germ cell tumors using a lectin-based immunoassay and surface plasmon resonance. Mol. Cell Endocrinol.2, 33–39 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Kovalevskaya G, Birken S, Kakuma T et al. Differential expression of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) glycosylation isoforms in failing and continuing pregnancies: preliminary characterization of the hyperglycosylated hCG epitope. J. Endocrinol.172, 497–506 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole LA, Khanlian SA, Kohorn EI. Evolution of the human brain, chorionic gonadotropin and hemochorial implantation of the placenta: insights into origins of pregnancy failures, preeclampsia and choriocarcinoma. J. Reprod. Med.53, 449–557 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cole LA. Hyperglycosylated hCG, a review. Placenta8, 653–664 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Rechtman MP, Zhang J, Salamonsen LA. Effect of inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases on endometrial decidualization and implantation in mated rats. J. Reprod. Fertil.117, 169–177 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharkey ME, Adler RR, Nieder L, Brenner CA. Matrix metalloproteinase expression during mouse peri-implantation development. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol.36, 72–80 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nardo LG, Nikas G, Makrigiannakis A. Molecules in blastocyst implantation: role of matrix metalloproteinases, cytokines and growth factors. J. Reprod. Med.48, 137–147 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qinglei L, Hongmei W, Yunge Z, Haiyan L, Qingxiang SA, Zhu C. Identification and specific expression of matrix metalloproteinase-26 in rhesus monkey endometrium during early pregnancy. Mol. Hum. Reprod.8, 934–940 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Biscof P, Campana A. A model for the implantation of the human blastocyst and early placentation. Hum. Reprod. Update48, 137–147 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Librach CL, Werb Z, Fitzgerald ML et al. 92-kD type IV collagenase mediates invasion of human cytotrophoblasts. J. Cell Biol.113, 437–449 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norwitz ER, Schust DJ, Fisher SJ. Implantation and the survival of early pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med.345, 1400–1408 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis MP, Sullivan MH, Elder MG. Regulation by interleukin-1-β of growth and collagenase production by choriocarcinoma cells. Placenta15, 13–20 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schuster N, Krieglstein K. Mechanisms of TGF-β-mediated apoptosis. Cell Tissue Res.307, 1–14 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamijo T, Rajabi MR, Mizunuma H, Ibuki Y. Biochemical evidence for autocrine/paracrine regulation of apoptosis in cultured uterine epithelial cells during mouse embryo implantation in vitro. Mol. Hum. Reprod.4, 990–998 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pampferf S. Apoptosis in rodent peri-implantation embryos: differential susceptibility of inner cell mass and trophectoderm cell lineages – review. Placenta21, S3–S10 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• Shooner C, Caron PC, Fréchette-Frigon G, Leblanc V, Déry MC, Asselin E. TGF-β expression during rat pregnancy and activity on decidual cell survival. Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol.3, 20 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu YX, Gao F, Wei P et al. Involvement of molecules related to angiogenesis, proteolysis and apoptosis in implantation in rhesus monkey and mouse. Contraception71, 249–262 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knittel T, Mehde M, Kobold D, Saile B, Dinter C, Ramadori G. Expression patterns of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells of rat liver regulation by TNF-α and TGF-β1. J. Hepatol.30, 48–60 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy G, Reynolds JJ, Whitham SE, Docherty AJ, Angel P, Heath JK. Transforming growth factor β modulates the expression of collagenase and metalioproteinase inhibitor. Eur. Mol. Biol. Org. J.6, 1899–1904 (1987).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qureshi HY, Sylvester J, El Mabrouk M, Zafarullah M. TGF-β-induced expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-3 gene in chondrocytes is mediated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway and Sp1 transcription factor. J. Cell Physiol.203(2), 345–352 (2005).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stetler-Stevenson WG, Brown PD, Onisto M, Levy AT, Liotta LA. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2) mRNA expression in tumor cell lines and human tumor tissues. J. Biol. Chem.265, 13933–13938 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pringle K, Roberts C. New light on early post-implantation pregnancy in the mouse: roles for insulin-like growth factor-II (IGF-II)? Placenta28, 286–297 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang JH, Koh SH, Han DI et al. Expression of transforming growth factor-1, 2 in the decidua of the early pregnancy: comparison of decidua basalis and decidua parietalis. Korean J. Obstet. Gynecol.44, 1145–1149 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Kingsley-Kallesen M, Johnson L, Scholtz B, Kelly D, Rizzino A. Transcriptional regulation of the TGF-β 2 gene in choriocarcinoma cells and breast carcinoma cells: differential utilization of cis-regulatory elements. In Vitro Cell Develop. Bio. Anim.33, 294–301 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Filla MS, Kaul KL. Relative expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in placental cytotrophoblasts and choriocarcinoma cell lines. Placenta18, 17–27 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee SB, Wong AP, Kanasaki K et al. 2-methoxyestradiol induces cytotrophoblast invasion and vascular development specifically under hypoxic conditions. Am. J. Pathol.176, 710–720 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaffer L, Scheid A, Spielmann P. Oxygen-regulated expression of TGF β 3, a growth factor involved in trophoblast differentiation. Placenta2, 911–950 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Caniggia I, Lye SJ, Cross JC. Activin is a local regulator of human cytotrophoblast cell differentiation. Endocrinology138, 3976–3986 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li RH, Zhuang LZ. The effects of growth factors on human normal placental cytotrophoblast cell proliferation. Hum. Reprod.12, 830–834 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamade AL, Nakabayashi K, Sato A et al. Transfection of antisense chorionic gonadotropin β gene into choriocarcinoma cells suppresses the cell proliferation and induces apoptosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.90, 4873–4879 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Lapthorn AJ, Harris DC, Littlejohn A et al. Crystal structure of human chorionic gonadotrophin. Nature369, 455–461 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu H, Lustbader JW, Liu Y, Canfield RE, Hendrickson WA. Structure of human chorionic gonadotropin at 2.6 A resolution from MAD analysis of the selenomethionyl protein. Structure2, 545–558 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laub M, Jennissen HP. Identification of the anthelix motif in the TGF-β superfamily by molecular 3D-rapid prototyping. Materialwissenschaft Werkstofftechnik34, 1113–1119 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Lehnert SA, Akhurst RA. Embryonic expression pattern of TGF β type-1 RNA suggests both paracrine and autocrine mechanisms of action. Development104, 263–273 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khoo NK, Bechberger JF, Shepherd T et al. SV40 Tag transformation of the normal invasive trophoblast results in a premalignant phenotype I mechanisms responsible for hyperinvasiveness and resistance to anti-invasive action of TGFβ. Int. J. Cancer77, 429–439 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iles RK. Ectopic hCGβ expression by epithelial cancer: malignant behavior metastasis and inhibition of tumor cell apoptosis. Mol. Cell. Endorcinol.2260, 264–270 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Butler SA, Ikram MS, Mathieu S, Iles RK. The increase in bladder carcinoma cell population induced by the free β subunit of hCG is a result of an anti-apoptosis effect and not cell proliferation. Brit. J. Cancer82, 1553–1556 (2000).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cole LA, Kardana A, Andrade-Gordon P et al. The heterogeneity of hCG. III. The occurrence, biological and immunological activities of nicked hCG. Endocrinology129, 1559–1567 (1991).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahado-Singh RO, Oz AU, Kingston JM, Shahabi S, Hsu CD, Cole LA. The role of hyperglycosylated hCG in trophoblast invasion and the prediction of subsequent pre-eclampsia. Prenat. Diagnos.22, 478–481 (2002).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lei ZM, Taylor DD, Gercel-Taylor C, Rao CV. Human chorionic gonadotropin promotes tumorigenesis in choriocarcinoma JAR cells. Troph. Res.13, 147–159 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Cole LA, Sutton JM, Higgins TN, Cembrowski GS. Between-method variation in hcg test results. Clin. Chem.50, 874–882 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussa RO. The expanding world of hCG, human chorionic gonadotropin. In: Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) (Chapter 1). Cole LA (Ed.). Elsevier, Oxford, UK, (2010).
   Google Scholar