14
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Current treatment options for vulvovaginal atrophy

&
Pages 141-151 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Calleja-AgiusJ, Brincat MP. Urogenital atrophy. Climacteric12(4), 279–285 (2009).
  • MacBride MB, Rhodes DJ, Shuster LT. Vulvovaginal atrophy. Mayo Clin. Proc.85(1), 87–94 (2010).
  • Lewis V. Undertreatment of menopausal symptoms and novel options for comprehensive management. Curr. Med. Res. Opin.25(11), 2689–2698 (2009).
  • Pastore LM, Carter RA, Hulka BS, Wells E. Self-reported urogenital symptoms in postmenopausal women: Women’s Health Initiative. Maturitas49(4), 292–303 (2004).
  • Levine KB, Williams RE, Hartmann KE. Vulvovaginal atrophy is strongly associated with female sexual dysfunction among sexually active postmenopausal women. Menopause15(4 Pt 1), 661–666 (2008).
  • SOGC clinical practice guidelines. The detection and management of vaginal atrophy. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet.88(2), 222–228 (2005).
  • Hill K. The demography of menopause. Maturitas23(2), 113–127 (1996).
  • Rutanen EM, Heikkinen J, Halonen K et al. Effects of ospemifene, a novel SERM, on hormones, genital tract, climacteric symptoms, and quality of life in postmenopausal women: a double-blind, randomized trial. Menopause10(5), 433–439 (2003).
  • Meisels A. The maturation value. Acta Cytol.11(4), 249 (1967).
  • Hess R, Austin RM, Dillon S, Chang CC, Ness RB. Vaginal maturation index self-sample collection in mid-life women: acceptability and correlation with physician-collected samples. Menopause15(4 Pt 1), 726–729 (2008).
  • Greene JG. Constructing a standard climacteric scale. Maturitas29(1), 25–31 (1998).
  • Lewis JE, Hilditch JR, Wong CJ. Further psychometric property development of the Menopause-Specific Quality of Life questionnaire and development of a modified version, MENQOL-Intervention questionnaire. Maturitas50(3), 209–221 (2005).
  • Hilditch JR, Lewis J, Peter A et al. A menopause-specific quality of life questionnaire: development and psychometric properties. Maturitas24(3), 161–175 (1996).
  • Blatt MH, Wiesbader H, Kupperman HS. Vitamin E and climacteric syndrome; failure of effective control as measured by menopausal index. AMA Arch. Intern. Med.91(6), 792–799 (1953).
  • Bachmann G, Bobula J, Mirkin S. Effects of bazedoxifene/conjugated estrogens on quality of life in postmenopausal women with symptoms of vulvar/vaginal atrophy. Climacteric13(2), 132–140 (2010).
  • McGahuey CA, Gelenberg AJ, Laukes CA et al. The Arizona Sexual Experience Scale (ASEX): reliability and validity. J. Sex Marital Ther.26(1), 25–40 (2000).
  • van Die MD, Teede HJ, Bone KM, Reece JE, Burger HG. Predictors of placebo response in a randomized, controlled trial of phytotherapy in menopause. Menopause16(4), 792–796 (2009).
  • Indhavivadhana S, Leerasiri P, Rattanachaiyanont M et al. Vaginal atrophy and sexual dysfunction in current users of systemic postmenopausal hormone therapy. J. Med. Assoc. Thai.93(6), 667–675 (2010).
  • Mehta A, Bachmann G. Vulvovaginal complaints. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol.51(3), 549–555 (2008).
  • Barlow DH, Samsioe G, van Geelen JM. A study of European womens’ experience of the problems of urogenital ageing and its management. Maturitas27(3), 239–247 (1997).
  • Dennerstein L, Dudley EC, Hopper JL, Guthrie JR, Burger HG. A prospective population-based study of menopausal symptoms. Obstet. Gynecol.96(3), 351–358 (2000).
  • Le Donne M, Caruso C, Mancuso A et al. The effect of vaginally administered genistein in comparison with hyaluronic acid on atrophic epithelium in postmenopause. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. DOI: 10.1007/s00404-010-1545-7 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Versi E, Harvey MA, Cardozo L, Brincat M, Studd JW. Urogenital prolapse and atrophy at menopause: a prevalence study. Int. Urogynecol. J. Pelvic Floor Dysfunct.12(2), 107–110 (2001).
  • Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer Breast. Cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Lancet350(9084), 1047–1059 (1997).
  • Grady D, Gebretsadik T, Kerlikowske K, Ernster V, Petitti D. Hormone replacement therapy and endometrial cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Obstet. Gynecol.85(2), 304–313 (1995).
  • Goldstein I, Alexander JL. Practical aspects in the management of vaginal atrophy and sexual dysfunction in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. J. Sex. Med.2(Suppl. 3), 154–165 (2005).
  • Ekin M, Yasar L, Savan K et al. The comparison of hyaluronic acid vaginal tablets with estradiol vaginal tablets in the treatment of atrophic vaginitis: a randomized controlled trial. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. DOI: 10.1007/s00404-010-1382-8 (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Derzko C, Elliott S, Lam W. Management of sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal breast cancer patients taking adjuvant aromatase inhibitor therapy. Curr. Oncol.14(Suppl. 1), S20–S40 (2007).
  • Day R, Ganz PA, Costantino JP et al. Health-related quality of life and tamoxifen in breast cancer prevention: a report from the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J. Clin. Oncol.17(9), 2659–2669 (1999).
  • Kwan KW, Chlebowski RT. Sexual dysfunction and aromatase inhibitor use in survivors of breast cancer. Clin. Breast Cancer9(4), 219–224 (2009).
  • Menezes M, Pereira M, Hextall A. Predictors of female urinary incontinence at midlife and beyond. Maturitas65(2), 167–171 (2010).
  • Barlow DH, Cardozo LD, Francis RM et al. Urogenital ageing and its effect on sexual health in older British women. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.104(1), 87–91 (1997).
  • Delmanto A, Nahas-Neto J, Nahas EA et al. Effect of raloxifene on the vaginal epithelium of postmenopausal women. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol.139(2), 187–192 (2008).
  • Jenkins MR, Sikon AL. Update on nonhormonal approaches to menopausal management. Cleve. Clin. J. Med.75(Suppl. 4), S17–S24 (2008).
  • Ganz PA, Day R, Ware JE Jr, Redmond C, Fisher B. Base-line quality-of-life assessment in the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Breast Cancer Prevention Trial. J. Natl Cancer Inst.87(18), 1372–1382 (1995).
  • Ganz PA, Rowland JH, Desmond K, Meyerowitz BE, Wyatt GE. Life after breast cancer: understanding women’s health-related quality of life and sexual functioning. J. Clin. Oncol.16(2), 501–514 (1998).
  • Lester JL, Bernhard LA. Urogenital atrophy in breast cancer survivors. Oncol. Nurs. Forum36(6), 693–698 (2009).
  • Mortimer JE, Boucher L, Baty J et al. Effect of tamoxifen on sexual functioning in patients with breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.17(5), 1488–1492 (1999).
  • Boccardo F, Bruzzi P, Rubagotti A, Nicolo GU, Rosso R. Estrogen-like action of tamoxifen on vaginal epithelium in breast cancer patients. Oncology38(5), 281–285 (1981).
  • Ferrazzi E, Cartei G, Mattarazzo R, Fiorentino M. Oestrogen-like effect of tamoxifen on vaginal epithelium. Br. Med. J.1(6072), 1351–1352 (1977).
  • Al-Azzawi F, Wahab M, Habiba M, Akkad A, Mason T. Continuous combined hormone replacement therapy compared with tibolone. Obstet. Gynecol.93(2), 258–264 (1999).
  • Partridge AH, Wang PS, Winer EP, Avorn J. Nonadherence to adjuvant tamoxifen therapy in women with primary breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.21(4), 602–606 (2003).
  • Partridge AH, LaFountain A, Mayer E et al. Adherence to initial adjuvant anastrozole therapy among women with early-stage breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol.26(4), 556–562 (2008).
  • Mortimer JE. Managing the toxicities of the aromatase inhibitors. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol.22(1), 56–60 (2010).
  • Yildirim B, Kaleli B, Duzcan E, Topuz O. The effects of postmenopausal vitamin D treatment on vaginal atrophy. Maturitas49(4), 334–337 (2004).
  • Abban G, Yildirim NB, Jetten AM. Regulation of the vitamin D receptor and cornifin beta expression in vaginal epithelium of the rats through vitamin D3. Eur. J. Histochem.52(2), 107–114 (2008).
  • Bodnar LM, Krohn MA, Simhan HN. Maternal vitamin D deficiency is associated with bacterial vaginosis in the first trimester of pregnancy. J. Nutr.139(6), 1157–1161 (2009).
  • Checa MA, Garrido A, Prat M et al. A comparison of raloxifene and calcium plus vitamin D on vaginal atrophy after discontinuation of long-standing postmenopausal hormone therapy in osteoporotic women. A randomized, masked-evaluator, one-year, prospective study. Maturitas52(1), 70–77 (2005).
  • Kaufert P, Boggs PP, Ettinger B, Woods NF, Utian WH. Women and menopause: beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The North American Menopause Society 1997 Menopause Survey. Menopause5(4), 197–202 (1998).
  • Kupferer EM, Dormire SL, Becker H. Complementary and alternative medicine use for vasomotor symptoms among women who have discontinued hormone therapy. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs.38(1), 50–59 (2009).
  • Kam IW, Dennehy CE, Tsourounis C. Dietary supplement use among menopausal women attending a San Francisco health conference. Menopause9(1), 72–78 (2002).
  • Rotem C, Kaplan B. Phyto-female complex for the relief of hot flushes, night sweats and quality of sleep: randomized, controlled, double-blind pilot study. Gynecol. Endocrinol.23(2), 117–122 (2007).
  • Ushiroyama T, Yoshida S, Tadaki K, Ikeda A, Ueki M. A pilot study of a Kampo formula, EH0202, with intriguing results for menopausal symptoms. J. Altern. Complement. Med.10(2), 397–399 (2004).
  • Obi N, Chang-Claude J, Berger J et al. The use of herbal preparations to alleviate climacteric disorders and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in a German case–control study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev.18(8), 2207–2213 (2009).
  • Messina MJ, Wood CE. Soy isoflavones, estrogen therapy, and breast cancer risk: analysis and commentary. Nutr. J.7, 17 (2008).
  • Reiter E, Beck V, Medjakovic S, Mueller M, Jungbauer A. Comparison of hormonal activity of isoflavone-containing supplements used to treat menopausal complaints. Menopause16(5), 1049–1060 (2009).
  • Low Dog T. Menopause: a review of botanical dietary supplements. Am. J. Med.118(Suppl. 12B), 98–108 (2005).
  • Jacobs A, Wegewitz U, Sommerfeld C, Grossklaus R, Lampen A. Efficacy of isoflavones in relieving vasomotor menopausal symptoms – a systematic review. Mol. Nutr. Food Res.53(9), 1084–1097 (2009).
  • Geller SE, Shulman LP, van Breemen RB et al. Safety and efficacy of black cohosh and red clover for the management of vasomotor symptoms: a randomized controlled trial. Menopause16(6), 1156–1166 (2009).
  • Cline JM, Franke AA, Register TC, Golden DL, Adams MR. Effects of dietary isoflavone aglycones on the reproductive tract of male and female mice. Toxicol. Pathol.32(1), 91–99 (2004).
  • McClain MR, Wolz E, Davidovich A et al. Acute, subchronic and chronic safety studies with genistein in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol.44(1), 56–80 (2006).
  • Reed SD, Newton KM, LaCroix AZ et al. Vaginal, endometrial, and reproductive hormone findings: randomized, placebo-controlled trial of black cohosh, multibotanical herbs, and dietary soy for vasomotor symptoms: the Herbal Alternatives for Menopause (HALT) Study. Menopause15(1), 51–58 (2008).
  • Shams T, Setia MS, Hemmings R et al. Efficacy of black cohosh-containing preparations on menopausal symptoms: a meta-analysis. Altern. Ther. Health Med.16(1), 36–44 (2010).
  • Teschke R, Bahre R, Fuchs J, Wolff A. Black cohosh hepatotoxicity: quantitative causality evaluation in nine suspected cases. Menopause16(5), 956–965 (2009).
  • Teschke R. Black cohosh and suspected hepatotoxicity: inconsistencies, confounding variables, and prospective use of a diagnostic causality algorithm. A critical review. Menopause17(2), 426–440 (2010).
  • Newton KM, Reed SD, LaCroix AZ et al. Treatment of vasomotor symptoms of menopause with black cohosh, multibotanicals, soy, hormone therapy, or placebo: a randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med.145(12), 869–879 (2006).
  • Lipovac M, Chedraui P, Gruenhut C et al. Improvement of postmenopausal depressive and anxiety symptoms after treatment with isoflavones derived from red clover extracts. Maturitas65(3), 258–261 (2010).
  • ACOG Practice Bulletin. Clinical Management Guidelines for Obstetrician–Gynecologists. Use of botanicals for management of menopausal symptoms. Obstet. Gynecol.97(Suppl. 6), 1–11 (2001).
  • van Die MD, Burger HG, Teede HJ, Bone KM. Vitex agnus-castus (Chaste-Tree/Berry) in the treatment of menopause-related complaints. J. Altern. Complement. Med.15(8), 853–862 (2009).
  • van Die MD, Burger HG, Bone KM, Cohen MM, Teede HJ. Hypericum perforatum with Vitex agnus-castus in menopausal symptoms: a randomized, controlled trial. Menopause16(1), 156–163 (2009).
  • Komesaroff PA, Black CV, Cable V, Sudhir K. Effects of wild yam extract on menopausal symptoms, lipids and sex hormones in healthy menopausal women. Climacteric4(2), 144–150 (2001).
  • Albertazzi P. Non-estrogenic approaches for the treatment of climacteric symptoms. Climacteric10(Suppl. 2), 115–120 (2007).
  • Dickman JR, Koenig RT, Ji LL. American ginseng supplementation induces an oxidative stress in postmenopausal women. J. Am. Coll. Nutr.28(2), 219–228 (2009).
  • Israel D, Youngkin EQ. Herbal therapies for perimenopausal and menopausal complaints. Pharmacotherapy17(5), 970–984 (1997).
  • Chung MH, Suzuki S, Nishihara T, Hattori M. Estrogenic effects of a Kampo formula, Tokishakuyakusan, in parous ovariectomized rats. Biol. Pharm. Bull.31(6), 1145–1149 (2008).
  • Ushiroyama T, Yoshida S, Tadaki K, Ikeda A, Ueki M. Clinical efficacy of EH0202, a Kampo formula, on the health of middle-aged women. Am. J. Chin. Med.32(5), 755–770 (2004).
  • Scheid V, Ward T, Cha WS, Watanabe K, Liao X. The treatment of menopausal symptoms by traditional East Asian medicines: review and perspectives. Maturitas66(2), 111–130 (2010).
  • Borrelli F, Ernst E. Alternative and complementary therapies for the menopause. Maturitas66(4), 333–343 (2010).
  • Schonberg MA, Wee CC. Menopausal symptom management and prevention counseling after the Women’s Health Initiative among women seen in an internal medicine practice. J. Womens Health (Larchmt.)14(6), 507–514 (2005).
  • Cardozo L, Bachmann G, McClish D, Fonda D, Birgerson L. Meta-analysis of estrogen therapy in the management of urogenital atrophy in postmenopausal women: second report of the Hormones and Urogenital Therapy Committee. Obstet. Gynecol.92(4 Pt 2), 722–727 (1998).
  • Gennari L, Merlotti D, Valleggi F, Martini G, Nuti R. Selective estrogen receptor modulators for postmenopausal osteoporosis: current state of development. Drugs Aging24(5), 361–379 (2007).
  • Galhardo CL, Soares JM Jr, Simoes RS et al. Estrogen effects on the vaginal pH, flora and cytology in late postmenopause after a long period without hormone therapy. Clin. Exp. Obstet. Gynecol.33(2), 85–89 (2006).
  • Utian WH. Psychosocial and socioeconomic burden of vasomotor symptoms in menopause: a comprehensive review. Health Qual. Life Outcomes3, 47 (2005).
  • Gelfand MM, Moreau M, Ayotte NJ et al. Clinical assessment and quality of life of postmenopausal women treated with a new intermittent progestogen combination hormone replacement therapy: a placebo-controlled study. Menopause10(1), 29–36 (2003).
  • Sulak PJ, Caubel P, Lane R. Efficacy and safety of a constant-estrogen, pulsed-progestin regimen in hormone replacement therapy. Int. J. Fertil. Womens Med.44(6), 286–296 (1999).
  • Bennink HJ. Reprint of: Are all estrogens the same? Maturitas61(1–2), 195–201 (2008).
  • Cayan F, Dilek U, Pata O, Dilek S. Comparison of the effects of hormone therapy regimens, oral and vaginal estradiol, estradiol + drospirenone and tibolone, on sexual function in healthy postmenopausal women. J. Sex. Med.5(1), 132–138 (2008).
  • Martin KA, Manson JE. Approach to the patient with menopausal symptoms. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.93(12), 4567–4575 (2008).
  • Rioux JE, Devlin C, Gelfand MM, Steinberg WM, Hepburn DS. 17β-estradiol vaginal tablet versus conjugated equine estrogen vaginal cream to relieve menopausal atrophic vaginitis. Menopause7(3), 156–161 (2000).
  • Fournier A. Should transdermal rather than oral estrogens be used in menopausal hormone therapy? A review. Menopause Int.16(1), 23–32 (2010).
  • Crook D. The metabolic consequences of treating postmenopausal women with non-oral hormone replacement therapy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol.104(Suppl. 16), 4–13 (1997).
  • Mattsson LA, Bohnet HG, Gredmark T et al. Continuous, combined hormone replacement: randomized comparison of transdermal and oral preparations. Obstet. Gynecol.94(1), 61–65 (1999).
  • Nachtigall LE. Emerging delivery systems for estrogen replacement: aspects of transdermal and oral delivery. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.173(3 Pt 2), 993–997 (1995).
  • Sturdee DW. Current hormone replacement therapy: what are the shortcomings? Advances in delivery. Int. J. Clin. Pract.53(6), 468–472 (1999).
  • Al-Baghdadi O, Ewies AA. Topical estrogen therapy in the management of postmenopausal vaginal atrophy: an up-to-date overview. Climacteric12(2), 91–105 (2009).
  • Cody JD, Richardson K, Moehrer B, Hextall A, Glazener CM. Oestrogen therapy for urinary incontinence in post-menopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.4, CD001405 (2009).
  • Beral V, Banks E, Reeves G, Wallis M. Hormone replacement therapy and high incidence of breast cancer between mammographic screens. Lancet349(9058), 1103–1104 (1997).
  • Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA288(3), 321–333 (2002).
  • Hulley S, Furberg C, Barrett-Connor E et al. Noncardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA288(1), 58–66 (2002).
  • Daly E, Vessey MP, Hawkins MM et al. Risk of venous thromboembolism in users of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet348(9033), 977–980 (1996).
  • Jick H, Derby LE, Myers MW, Vasilakis C, Newton KM. Risk of hospital admission for idiopathic venous thromboembolism among users of postmenopausal oestrogens. Lancet348(9033), 981–983 (1996).
  • Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Goldhaber SZ et al. Prospective study of exogenous hormones and risk of pulmonary embolism in women. Lancet348(9033), 983–987 (1996).
  • Grodstein F, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ. Postmenopausal hormone use and cholecystectomy in a large prospective study. Obstet. Gynecol.83(1), 5–11 (1994).
  • Chlebowski RT, Anderson, Garnet L et al. Estrogen plus progestin and breast cancer incidence and mortality in postmenopausal women. JAMA304(15), 1684–1692 (2010).
  • Singh P, Oehler MK. Hormone replacement after gynaecological cancer. Maturitas65(3), 190–197 (2010).
  • Holmberg L, Anderson H. HABITS (Hormonal Replacement Therapy after Breast Cancer – Is It Safe?), a randomised comparison: trial stopped. Obstet. Gynecol.363(9407), 453–455 (2004).
  • Shifren JL, Schiff I. Role of hormone therapy in the management of menopause. Obstet. Gynecol.115(4), 839–855 (2010).
  • Grady D, Brown JS, Vittinghoff E et al. Postmenopausal hormones and incontinence: the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study. Obstet. Gynecol.97(1), 116–120 (2001).
  • Hendrix SL, Cochrane BB, Nygaard IE et al. Effects of estrogen with and without progestin on urinary incontinence. JAMA293(8), 935–948 (2005).
  • The North American Menopause Society. The role of local vaginal estrogen for treatment of vaginal atrophy in postmenopausal women: 2007 position statement of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause14(3 Pt 1), 355–369; quiz 370–351 (2007).
  • Labrie F, Cusan L, Gomez JL et al. Effect of one-week treatment with vaginal estrogen preparations on serum estrogen levels in postmenopausal women. Menopause16(1), 30–36 (2009).
  • Paganini-Hill A, Henderson VW. Estrogen replacement therapy and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch. Intern. Med.156(19), 2213–2217 (1996).
  • Krause M, Wheeler TL, Holly ER, Thomas SE. Systemic effects of vaginally administered estrogen therapy. Female Pelvic Med. Reconstruc. Surg.16, 188–195 (2010).
  • Rigg LA, Hermann H, Yen SS. Absorption of estrogens from vaginal creams. N. Engl. J. Med.298(4), 195–197 (1978).
  • Dorr MB, Nelson AL, Mayer PR et al. Plasma estrogen concentrations after oral and vaginal estrogen administration in women with atrophic vaginitis. Fertil. Steril.94(6), 2365–2368 (2010).
  • Notelovitz M. Urogenital aging: solutions in clinical practice. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet.59(Suppl. 1), S35–S39 (1997).
  • Hurst BS, Jones AI, Elliot M, Marshburn PB, Matthews ML. Absorption of vaginal estrogen cream during sexual intercourse: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. J. Reprod. Med.53(1), 29–32 (2008).
  • Sherwin BB, Gelfand MM. The role of androgen in the maintenance of sexual functioning in oophorectomized women. Psychosom. Med.49(4), 397–409 (1987).
  • Shulman LP. Androgens and menopause. Minerva Ginecol.61(6), 491–497 (2009).
  • Hubayter Z, Simon JA. Testosterone therapy for sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal women. Climacteric11(3), 181–191 (2008).
  • Davis SR, McCloud P, Strauss BJ, Burger H. Testosterone enhances estradiol’s effects on postmenopausal bone density and sexuality. Maturitas21(3), 227–236 (1995).
  • Tuiten A, Van Honk J, Koppeschaar H et al. Time course of effects of testosterone administration on sexual arousal in women. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry57(2), 149–153; discussion 155–156 (2000).
  • Sarrel P, Dobay B, Wiita B. Estrogen and estrogen–androgen replacement in postmenopausal women dissatisfied with estrogen-only therapy. Sexual behavior and neuroendocrine responses. J. Reprod. Med.43(10), 847–856 (1998).
  • Labrie F, Belanger A, Belanger P et al. Androgen glucuronides, instead of testosterone, as the new markers of androgenic activity in women. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol.99(4–5), 182–188 (2006).
  • Labrie F, Luu-The V, Belanger A et al. Is dehydroepiandrosterone a hormone? J. Endocrinol.187(2), 169–196 (2005).
  • Buster JE. Transvaginal dehydroepiandrosterone: an unconventional proposal to deliver a mysterious androgen that has no receptor or target tissue using a strategy with a new name: hormone precursor replacement therapy (HPRT). Menopause16(5), 858–859 (2009).
  • Raghunandan C, Agrawal S, Dubey P, Choudhury M, Jain A. A comparative study of the effects of local estrogen with or without local testosterone on vulvovaginal and sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal women. J. Sex. Med.7(3), 1284–1290 (2010).
  • de Paula FJ, Soares JM Jr, Haidar MA, de Lima GR, Baracat EC. The benefits of androgens combined with hormone replacement therapy regarding to patients with postmenopausal sexual symptoms. Maturitas56(1), 69–77 (2007).
  • Foster GV, Zacur HA, Rock JA. Hot flashes in postmenopausal women ameliorated by danazol. Fertil. Steril.43(3), 401–404 (1985).
  • Stearns V, Ullmer L, Lopez JF et al. Hot flushes. Lancet360(9348), 1851–1861 (2002).
  • Labrie F, Archer D, Bouchard C et al. Intravaginal dehydroepiandrosterone (prasterone), a physiological and highly efficient treatment of vaginal atrophy. Menopause16(5), 907–922 (2009).
  • Labrie F, Archer D, Bouchard C et al. Effect of intravaginal dehydroepiandrosterone (prasterone) on libido and sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal women. Menopause16(5), 923–931 (2009).
  • Johannsson G, Burman P, Wiren L et al. Low dose dehydroepiandrosterone affects behavior in hypopituitary androgen-deficient women: a placebo-controlled trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.87(5), 2046–2052 (2002).
  • Spark RF. Dehydroepiandrosterone: a springboard hormone for female sexuality. Fertil. Steril.77(Suppl. 4), S19–S25 (2002).
  • Rubino S, Stomati M, Bersi C et al. Neuroendocrine effect of a short-term treatment with DHEA in postmenopausal women. Maturitas28(3), 251–257 (1998).
  • Stomati M, Monteleone P, Casarosa E et al. Six-month oral dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation in early and late postmenopause. Gynecol. Endocrinol.14(5), 342–363 (2000).
  • Labrie F, Cusan L, Gomez JL et al. Effect of intravaginal DHEA on serum DHEA and eleven of its metabolites in postmenopausal women. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol.111(3–5), 178–194 (2008).
  • Labrie F, Cusan L, Gomez JL et al. Changes in serum DHEA and eleven of its metabolites during 12-month percutaneous administration of DHEA. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol.110(1–2), 1–9 (2008).
  • Labrie F, Archer D, Bouchard C et al. Serum steroid levels during 12-week intravaginal dehydroepiandrosterone administration. Menopause16(5), 897–906 (2009).
  • Biglia N, Maffei S, Lello S, Nappi RE. Tibolone in postmenopausal women: a review based on recent randomised controlled clinical trials. Gynecol. Endocrinol.26(11), 804–814 (2010).
  • Rymer J, Chapman MG, Fogelman I, Wilson PO. A study of the effect of tibolone on the vagina in postmenopausal women. Maturitas18(2), 127–133 (1994).
  • Nappi RE, Ferdeghini F, Sampaolo P et al. Clitoral circulation in postmenopausal women with sexual dysfunction: a pilot randomized study with hormone therapy. Maturitas55(3), 288–295 (2006).
  • Cummings SR, Ettinger B, Delmas PD et al. The effects of tibolone in older postmenopausal women. N. Engl. J. Med.359(7), 697–708 (2008).
  • Nijland EA, Weijmar Schultz WC, Davis SR. Effects of tibolone and raloxifene on health-related quality of life and sexual function. Maturitas58(2), 164–173 (2007).
  • Stovall DW. Aprela, a single tablet formulation of bazedoxifene and conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin) for the potential treatment of menopausal symptoms. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs11(4), 464–471 (2010).
  • Bai WP, Wang SY, Liu JL et al. [Efficacy and safety of remifemin compared to tibolone for controlling of perimenopausal symptoms]. Zhonghua Fu Chan Ke Za Zhi44(8), 597–600 (2009).
  • de Vries CS, Bromley SE, Thomas H, Farmer RD. Tibolone and endometrial cancer: a cohort and nested case–control study in the UK. Drug Saf.28(3), 241–249 (2005).
  • Beral V, Bull D, Reeves G. Endometrial cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet365(9470), 1543–1551 (2005).
  • Sites CK. Bioidentical hormones for menopausal therapy. Womens Health (Lond. Engl.)4(2), 163–171 (2008).
  • Cirigliano M. Bioidentical hormone therapy: a review of the evidence. J. Womens Health (Larchmt.)16(5), 600–631 (2007).
  • Shelly W, Draper MW, Krishnan V, Wong M, Jaffe RB. Selective estrogen receptor modulators: an update on recent clinical findings. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv.63(3), 163–181 (2008).
  • Nath A, Sitruk-Ware R. Pharmacology and clinical applications of selective estrogen receptor modulators. Climacteric12(3), 188–205 (2009).
  • Pinkerton JV, Goldstein SR. Endometrial safety: a key hurdle for selective estrogen receptor modulators in development. Menopause17(3), 642–653 (2010).
  • Wang XN, Simmons HA, Salatto CT, Cosgrove PG, Thompson DD. Lasofoxifene enhances vaginal mucus formation without causing hypertrophy and increases estrogen receptor β and androgen receptor in rats. Menopause13(4), 609–620 (2006).
  • Gennari L. Lasofoxifene, a new selective estrogen receptor modulator for the treatment of osteoporosis and vaginal atrophy. Expert Opin. Pharmacother.10(13), 2209–2220 (2009).
  • Gass M, Bachmann GM, Kagan R, Moffett A, Barcomb L, Symons J. Lasofoxifene (LASO), a next generation selective estrogen response modulator (SERM), improves dyspareunia in postmenopausal women with vaginal atrophy (VA). Menopause12, 238 (2005).
  • Gass M, Bachnamm G, Moffett A, Symons J. Clinical signs of vaginal atrophy are improved by the SERM, lasofoxifene. Menopause11, 670 (2004).
  • Simon GM, Kagan R, Spino C, Nemmeth MA. Lasofoxifene effectively treats dyspareunia in postmenopausal women with vaginal atrophy. Obstet. Gynecol.105, 102S (2005).
  • Bolognese MA. SERMs and SERMs with estrogen for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord.11(4), 253–259 (2010).
  • Gennari L. Lasofoxifene (Pfizer). Curr. Opin. Invest. Drugs6(10), 1067–1078 (2005).
  • Pickar JH, Macneil T, Ohleth K. SERMs: progress and future perspectives. Maturitas67(2), 129–138 (2010).
  • Komm BS, Kharode YP, Bodine PV et al. Bazedoxifene acetate: a selective estrogen receptor modulator with improved selectivity. Endocrinology146(9), 3999–4008 (2005).
  • Kharode Y, Bodine PV, Miller CP, Lyttle CR, Komm BS. The pairing of a selective estrogen receptor modulator, bazedoxifene, with conjugated estrogens as a new paradigm for the treatment of menopausal symptoms and osteoporosis prevention. Endocrinology149(12), 6084–6091 (2008).
  • Ronkin S, Northington R, Baracat E et al. Endometrial effects of bazedoxifene acetate, a novel selective estrogen receptor modulator, in postmenopausal women. Obstet. Gynecol.105(6), 1397–1404 (2005).
  • Pickar JH. The endometrium-from estrogens alone to TSECs. Climacteric12(6), 463–477 (2009).
  • Kagan R, Williams RS, Pan K, Mirkin S, Pickar JH. A randomized, placebo-and active-controlled trial of bazedoxifene/conjugated estrogens for treatment of moderate to severe vulvar/vaginal atrophy in postmenopausal women. Menopause17(2), 281–289 (2010).
  • Vardy MD, Lindsay R, Scotti RJ et al. Short-term urogenital effects of raloxifene, tamoxifen, and estrogen. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.189(1), 81–88 (2003).
  • Zeyneloglu HB, Oktem M, Haberal NA, Esinler I, Kuscu E. The effect of raloxifene in association with vitamin D on vaginal maturation index and urogenital symptoms in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. Fertil. Steril.88(2), 530–532 (2007).
  • Vogel VG, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL et al. Effects of tamoxifen vs raloxifene on the risk of developing invasive breast cancer and other disease outcomes: the NSABP Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR) P-2 trial. JAMA295(23), 2727–2741 (2006).
  • Parsons A, Merritt D, Rosen A et al. Effect of raloxifene on the response to conjugated estrogen vaginal cream or nonhormonal moisturizers in postmenopausal vaginal atrophy. Obstet. Gynecol.101(2), 346–352 (2003).
  • Pinkerton JV, Shifren JL, La Valleur J et al. Influence of raloxifene on the efficacy of an estradiol-releasing ring for treating vaginal atrophy in postmenopausal women. Menopause10(1), 45–52 (2003).
  • Gennari L, Merlotti D, Valleggi F, Nuti R. Ospemifene use in postmenopausal women. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs18(6), 839–849 (2009).
  • Qu Q, Zheng H, Dahllund J et al. Selective estrogenic effects of a novel triphenylethylene compound, FC1271a, on bone, cholesterol level, and reproductive tissues in intact and ovariectomized rats. Endocrinology141(2), 809–820 (2000).
  • Gennari L. Ospemifene hormos. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs5(4), 448–455 (2004).
  • Bachmann GA, Komi JO. Ospemifene effectively treats vulvovaginal atrophy in postmenopausal women: results from a pivotal Phase 3 study. Menopause17(3), 480–486 (2010).

Websites

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.