162
Views
26
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: risk and protection

&
Pages 1541-1549 | Published online: 10 Jan 2014

References

  • Cushman M, Tsai AW, White RH et al. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in two cohorts: the longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology. Am. J. Med.117(1), 19–25 (2004).
  • Trager J, Ward MM. Mortality and causes of death in systemic lupus erythematosus. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol.13(5), 345–351 (2001).
  • Ruiz-Irastorza G, Egurbide MV, Ugalde J, Aguirre C. High impact of antiphospholipid syndrome on irreversible organ damage and survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arch. Intern. Med.164(1), 77–82 (2004).
  • Drenkard C, Villa AR, Alarcón-Segovia D, Perez-Vazquez ME. Influence of the antiphospholipid syndrome in the survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol.21, 1067–1072 (1994).
  • Nordstrom M, Lindblad B, Bergqvist D, Kjellstrom T. A prospective-study of the incidence of deep-vein thrombosis within a defined urban-population. J. Inter. Med.232(2), 155–160 (1992).
  • Brouwer JLP, Bijl M, Veeger NJG, Kluin-Nelemans HC, van der Meer J. The contribution of inherited and acquired thrombophilic defects, alone or combined with antiphospholipid antibodies, to venous and arterial thromboembolism in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Blood104(1), 143–148 (2004).
  • Sharp LK, Lipsky MS. Screening for depression across the lifespan: a review of measures for use in primary care settings. Am. Fam. Physician66, 1001–1008 (2002).
  • Cervera R, Khamashta MA, Font J et al. Morbidity and mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus during a 10-year period: a comparison of early and late manifestations in a cohort of 1,000 patients. European Working Party on Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Medicine82(5), 299–308 (2003).
  • Somers E, Magder LS, Petri M. Antiphospholipid antibodies and incidence of venous thrombosis in a cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol.29(12), 2531–2536 (2002).
  • Sallai KK, Nagy E, Bodo I, Mohl A, Gergely P. Thrombosis risk in systemic lupus erythematosus: the role of thrombophilic risk factors. Scand. J. Rheumatol.36(3), 198–205 (2007).
  • Kaiser R, Cleveland CM, Criswell LA. Risk and protective factors for thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a large, multi-ethnic cohort. Ann. Rheum. Dis.68(2), 238–241 (2009).
  • Cervera R, Khamashta MA, Font J et al. Morbidity and mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus during a 5-year period. A multicenter prospective study of 1,000 patients. European Working Party on Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Medicine78, 167–175 (1999).
  • Ward MM. Premature morbidity from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum.42(2), 338–346 (1999).
  • Schattner A, Liang MH. The cardiovascular burden of lupus: a complex challenge. Arch. Intern. Med.163, 1507–1510 (2003).
  • Bessant R, Hingorani A, Patel L, MacGregor A, Isenberg DA, Rahman A. Risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in a large British cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford)43, 924–929 (2004).
  • Mok CC, Tang SS, To CH, Petri M. Incidence and risk factors of thromboembolism in systemic lupus erythematosus: a comparison of three ethnic groups. Arthritis Rheum.52(9), 1774–2782 (2005).
  • Ho KT, Ahn CW, Alarcón GS et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic cohort (LUMINA): XXVIII. Factors predictive of thrombotic events. Rheumatology44, 1303–1307 (2005).
  • Tektonidou MG, Laskari K, Panagiotakos DB, Moutsopoulos HM. Risk factors for thrombosis and primary thrombosis prevention in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with or without antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheum.61(1), 29–36 (2009).
  • Toloza SMA, Uribe AG, McGwin G Jr et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA) XXIII: baseline predictors of vascular events. Arthritis Rheum.50(12), 3947–3957 (2004).
  • Pierangeli SS, Harris EN. Probing antiphospholipid-mediated thrombosis: the interplay between anticardiolipin antibodies and endothelial cells. Lupus12(7), 539–545 (2003).
  • Khamashta MA. Primary prevention of thrombosis in subjects with positive antiphospholipid antibodies. J. Autoimmunity15, 249–253 (2000).
  • Alarcon-Segovia D, Boffa MC, Branch W et al. Prophylaxis of the antiphospholipid syndrome: a consensus report. Lupus12(7), 499–503 (2003).
  • Finazzi G, Brancaccio V, Moia M et al. Natural history and risk factors for thrombosis in 360 patients with antiphospholipid antibodies: a four-year prospective study from the Italian registry. Am. J. Med.100, 530–536 (1996).
  • Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ, Mujic F, Taub NA, Hunt BJ, Hughes GRV. The management of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med.332(15), 993–997 (1995).
  • Love PE, Santoro SA. Antiphospholipid antibodies: anticardiolipin and the lupus anticoagulant in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and in non-SLE disorders. Prevalence and clinical significance. Ann. Intern. Med.112, 682–698 (1990).
  • Cervera R, Piette JC, Font J et al. Antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical and immunologic manifestations and patterns of disease expression in a cohort of 1,000 patients. Arthritis Rheum.46(4), 1019–1027 (2002).
  • Wahl DG, Guillemin F, de Maistre E, Perret C, Lecompte T, Thibaut G. Risk for venous thrombosis related to antiphospholipid antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus – a meta-analysis. Lupus6(5), 467–473 (1997).
  • Calvo-Alen J, Toloza SMA, Fernandez M et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA) – XXV. Smoking, older age, disease activity, lupus anticoagulant, and glucocorticoid dose as risk factors for the occurrence of venous thrombosis in lupus patients. Arthritis Rheum.52(7), 2060–2068 (2005).
  • Mok CC, Lau CS, Wong R. Use of exogenous estrogens in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin. Arthritis Rheum.30, 426–435 (2001).
  • Ginsburg KS, Liang MH, Newcomer L et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies and the risk for ischemic stroke and venous thrombosis. Ann. Intern. Med.117(12), 997–1002 (1992).
  • Danowski A, de Azevedo MNL, Papi JAD, Petri M. Determinants of risk for venous and arterial thrombosis in primary antiphospholipid syndrome and in antiphospholipid syndrome with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol.36(6), 1195–1199 (2009).
  • Tarr T, Lakos G, Bhattoa HP, Shoenfeld Y, Szegedi G, Kiss E. Analysis of risk factors for the development of thrombotic complications in antiphospholipid antibody positive lupus patients. Lupus16(1), 39–45 (2007).
  • Ishii Y, Nagasawa K, Mayumi T, Niho Y. Clinical importance of persistence of anticardiolipin antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis.49, 387–390 (1990).
  • Danowski A, Kickler TS, Petri M. Anti-β2-glycoprotein I: prevalence, clinical correlations, and importance of persistent positivity in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol.33(9), 1775–1779 (2006).
  • Martinez-Berriotxoa A, Ruiz-Irastorza G, Egurbide MV et al. Transiently positive anticardiolipin antibodies do not increase the risk of thrombosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol.25(2), 129–129 (2007).
  • Escalante A, Brey RL, Mitchell BDJr, Dreiner U. Accuracy of anticardiolipin antibodies in identifying a history of thrombosis among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am. J. Med.98, 559–565 (1995).
  • Shen YM, Lee R, Frenkel E, Sarode R. IgA antiphospholipid antibodies are an independent risk factor for thromboses. Lupus17(11), 996–1003 (2008).
  • Molina JF, GutierrezUrena S, Molina J et al. Variability of anticardiolipin antibody isotype distribution in 3 geographic populations of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol.24(2), 291–296 (1997).
  • Sanfilippo SS, Khamashta MA, Atsumi T et al. Antibodies to β2-glycoprotein I: a potential marker for clinical features of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol.25(11), 2131–2134 (1998).
  • Wahl DG, Guillemin F, de Maistre E, Perret-Guillaume C, Lecompte T, Thibaut G. Meta-analysis of the risk of venous thrombosis in individuals with antiphospholipid antibodies without underlying autoimmune disease or previous thrombosis. Lupus7, 15–22 (1998).
  • Wahl D, Perret-Guillaume C, Kaminski P, Lacolley P, Regnault V, Lecompte T. Significance of plasma soluble endothelial protein C receptor in antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol.25(2), 141–141 (2007).
  • Simantov R, Lasala JM, Lo SK et al. Activation of cultured vascular endothelial-cells by antiphospholipid antibodies. J. Clin. Invest.96(5), 2211–2219 (1995).
  • Lutters BCH, Derksen RHWM, Tekelenburg WL, Lenting PJ, Arnout J, de Groot PG. Dimers of β(2)-glycoprotein I increase platelet deposition to collagen via interaction with phospholipids and the apolipoprotein E receptor 2. J. Biol. Chem.278(36), 33831–33838 (2003).
  • Afeltra A, Vadacca M, Conti L et al. Thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: Congenital and acquired risk factors. Arthritis Rheum.53(3), 452–459 (2005).
  • Stein JH, McBride PE. Hyperhomocysteinemia and atherosclerotic vascular disease – pathophysiology, screening, and treatment. Arch. Intern. Med.158(12), 1301–1306 (1998).
  • Welch GN, Loscalzo J. Homocysteine and atherothrombosis. N. Engl. J. Med.339(7), 479–479 (1998).
  • Martinez-Berriotxoa A, Ruiz-Irastorza G, Arberas MVE, Gutierrez MR, Errasti CA. Plasma homocysteine levels in systemic lupus erythematosus. Med. Clin. (Barc.)120(18), 681–685 (2003).
  • Fijnheer R, Roest M, Haas FJLM, de Groot PG, Derksen RHWM. Homocysteine, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphism, antiphospholipid antibodies, and thromboembolic events in systemic lupus erythematosus: a retrospective cohort study. J. Rheumatol.25(9), 1737–1742 (1998).
  • Petri M, Roubenoff R, Dallal G, Nadeau MR, Selhub J, Rosenbert IH. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for atherothrombotic events in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet348, 1120–1124 (1996).
  • Martinez-Berriotxoa A, Ruiz-Irastorza G, Egrubide MV, Rueda M, Aguirre C. Homocysteine, antiphospholipid antibodies and risk of thrombosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus13(12), 927–933 (2004).
  • Bertina RM, Koeleman BPC, Koster T et al. Mutation in blood-coagulation Factor-V associated with resistance to activated protein-C. Nature369(6475), 64–67 (1994).
  • Poort SR, Rosendaal FR, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM. A common genetic variation in the 3´-untranslated region of the prothrombin gene is associated with elevated plasma prothrombin levels and an increase in venous thrombosis. Blood88(10), 3698–3703 (1996).
  • Ohlenschlaeger T, Garred P, Madsen HO, Jacobsen S. Mannose-binding lectin variant alleles and the risk of arterial thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med.351(3), 260–267 (2004).
  • Calvo-Alen J, Alarcon GS, Tew MB et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort: XXXIV. Deficient mannose-binding lectin exon 1 polymorphisms are associated with cerebrovascular but not with other arterial thrombotic events. Arthritis Rheum.54(6), 1940–1945 (2006).
  • Takahashi R, Tsutsumi A, Ohtani K, Wakamiya N, Sumida T. Lack of relationship between mannose-binding lectin variant alleles and risk of arterial thrombosis in Japanese patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Mod. Rheumatol.15(6), 459–460 (2005).
  • Costenbader KH, Daniel JK, Peerzada J et al. Cigarette smoking and the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus: a meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum.50(3), 849–857 (2004).
  • Ghaussy NO, Sibbitt W Jr, Qualls CR. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control study. J. Rheumatol.28(11), 2449–2453 (2001).
  • Hardy CJ, Palmer BP, Muir KR, Sutton AJ, Powell RJ. Smoking history, alcohol consumption, and systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control study. Ann. Rheum. Dis.57(8), 451–455 (1998).
  • Ghaussy NO, Sibbitt W Jr, Bankhurst AD, Qualls CR. Cigarette smoking and disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol.30(6), 1215–1221 (2003).
  • Ward MM, Studenski S. Clinical prognostic factors in lupus nephritis. Arch. Intern. Med.152, 2082–2088 (1992).
  • Petri M. Smoking is a risk factor for musculoskeletal, pulmonary and cardiac disease in SLE. Arthritis Rheum.40(Suppl.), S118 (1997).
  • Brown K, Petri M, Goldman D. Cutaneous manifestations of SLE: associations with other manifestations of SLE and with smoking. Arthritis Rheum.38(Suppl.), R27 (1995).
  • Jay SJ. Cigarette smoking: risk factor for venous thromboembolic disease? Arch. Intern. Med.158(21), 2315–2323 (1998).
  • Kahn SR. The clinical diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis: integrating incidence, risk factors, and symptoms and signs. Arch. Intern. Med.158, 2315–2323 (1998).
  • Hansson PO, Eriksson H, Welin L, Svardsudd K, Wilhelmsen L. Smoking and abdominal obesity: risk factors for venous thromboembolism among middle-aged men: “the study of men born in 1913”. Arch. Intern. Med.159(16), 1886–1890 (1999).
  • Miller GJ, Bauer KA, Cooper JA, Rosenberg RD. Activation of the coagulant pathway in cigarette smokers. Thromb. Haemost.79(3), 549–553 (1998).
  • Molina JF, Molina J, Garcia C, Gharavi AE, Wilson WA, Espinoza LR. Ethnic differences in the clinical expression of systemic lupus erythematosus: a comparative study between African–Americans and Latin Americans. Lupus6(1), 63–67 (1997).
  • Alarcon GS. Risk factors for thombotic events ein systemic lupus erythematosus from different ethnic groups. Inter. J. Clin. Rheum.4, 267–269 (2009).
  • Manzi S, Meilahn EN, Rairie JE et al. Age-specific incidence rates of myocardial infarction and angina in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with the Framingham study. Am. J. Epidemiol.145, 408–415 (1997).
  • Manzi S, Selzer F, Sutton-Tyrrell K et al. Prevalence and risk factors of carotid plaque in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum.42(1), 51–60 (1999).
  • Petri M, Perez-Gutthann S, Spence D, Hochberg MC. Risk factors for coronary artery disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am. J. Med.93, 513–519 (1992).
  • Giesen PLA, Rauch U, Bohrmann B et al. Blood-borne tissue factor: another view of thrombosis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA96(5), 2311–2315 (1999).
  • Shah N, Khamashta MA, Atsumi T, Hughes GRV. Outcome of patients with anticardiolipin antibodies: a 10 year follow-up of 52 patients. Lupus7, 3–6 (1998).
  • Petri M. Thrombosis and systemic lupus erythematosus: the Hopkins Lupus Cohort perspective. Scand. J. Rheumatol.25(4), 191–193 (1996).
  • Moroni G, Ventura D, Riva P et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies are associated with an increased risk for chronic renal insufficiency in patients with lupus nephritis. Am. J. Kidney Dis.43(1), 28–36 (2004).
  • Choojitarom K, Verasertniyom O, Totemchokchyakarn K, Nantiruj K, Sumethkul V, Janwityanujit S. Lupus nephritis and Raynaud’s phenomenon are significant risk factors for vascular thrombosis in SLE patients with positive antiphospholipid antibodies. Clin. Rheumatol.27(3), 345–351 (2008).
  • Crew RJ, Radhakrishnan J, Appel G. Complications of the nephrotic syndrome and their treatment. Clin. Nephrol.62(4), 245–259 (2004).
  • Mahmoodi BK, ten Kate MK, Waanders F et al. High absolute risks and predictors of venous and arterial thromboembolic events in patients with nephrotic syndrome. Circulation117(2), 224–230 (2008).
  • Sun HO, Hu WX, Xie HL et al. Long-term outcome of Chinese patients with membranous lupus nephropathy. Lupus17(1), 56–61 (2008).
  • Ruiz-Irastorza G, Khamashta MA, Hunt BJ, Escudero A, Cuadrado MJ, Hughes GRV. Bleeding and recurrent thrombosis in definite antiphospholipid syndrome – analysis of a series of 66 patients treated with oral anticoagulation to a target international normalized ratio of 3.5. Arch. Intern. Med.162(10), 1164–1169 (2002).
  • Roman MJ, Shanker BA, Davis A et al. Prevalence and correlates of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med.349(25), 2399–2406 (2003).
  • Maxwell SR, Moots RJ, Kendall MJ. Corticosteroids: do they damage the cardiovascular system? Postgrad. Med. J.70(830), 863–870 (1994).
  • Ueda N. Effect of corticosteroids on some hemostatic parameters in children with minimal change nephrotic syndrome. Nephron56(4), 374–378 (1990).
  • Evans MJ, MacLaughlin S, Marvin RD, Abdou NI. Estrogen decrease in vitro apoptosis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from women with normal menstrual cycles and decreases TNF-α production in SLE but not in normal cultures. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol.82, 258–262 (1997).
  • Dayan M, Zinger H, Kalush F, Mor G, Amir-Zaltzman A, Kohen F. The beneficial effects of treatment with tamoxifen and anti-oestradiol antibody on experimental systemic lupus erythematosus are associated with cytokine modulatons. Immunology90, 101–108 (1997).
  • Bertsias G, Ioannidis JPA, Boletis J et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus. Report of a task force of the EULAR standing committee for international clinical studies including therapeutics. Ann. Rheum. Dis.67(2), 195–205 (2008).
  • Daly E, Vessey MP, Hawkins MN, Carson JL, Gough P, Marsh S. Risk of venous thromboembolism in users of hormone replacement therapy. Lancet348(9033), 977–980 (1996).
  • Jick H, Derby LE, Myers MW, Vasilakis C, Newton KM. Risk of hospital admission for idiopathic venous thromboembolism among users of postmenopausal oestrogens. Lancet348(9033), 981–983 (1996).
  • Sanchez-Guerrero J, Liang MH, Karlson EW, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA. Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and the risk for developing systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Intern. Med.122(6), 430–433 (1995).
  • Fernandez M, McGwin G Jr, Bertoli AM, Calvo-Alen J, Alarcon GS. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic cohort (LUMINAXXXIX): relationship between hormone replacement therapy and disease activity over time. Lupus15(9), 621–622 (2006).
  • Buyon JP, Petri MA, Kim MY et al. The effect of combined estrogen and progesterone hormone replacement therapy on disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus: a randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med.142, 953–962 (2005).
  • Mok CC, Lau CS, Ho CT, Lee KW, Mok MY, Wong RW. Safety of hormonal replacement therapy in postmenopausal patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand. J. Rheumatol.27, 342–346 (1998).
  • Julkunen HA. Oral-Contraceptives in systemic lupus-erythematosus – side-effects and influence on the activity of sle. Scand. J. Rheumatol.20(6), 427–433 (1991).
  • Sanchez-Guerrero J, Karlson EW, Liang MH, Hunter DJ, Speizer FE, Colditz GA. Past use of oral contraceptives and the risk of developing systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum.40(5), 804–808 (1997).
  • Buyon JP, Kalunian KC, Skovron ML et al. Can women with systemic lupus erythematosus safely use exogenous estrogens? J. Clin. Rheumatol.1, 205–212 (1995).
  • Garovich M, Agudelo CA, Pisko EJ. Oral contraceptives and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum.23, 1396–1398 (1980).
  • Forastiero R, Martinuzzo M, Adamczuk Y, Varela MLI, Pombo G, Carreras LO. The combination of thrombophilic genotypes is associated with definite antiphospholipid syndrome. Haematologica86(7), 735–741 (2001).
  • Girolami A, Zanon E, Zanardi S, Saracino MA, Simioni P. Thromboembolic disease developing during oral contraceptive therapy in young females with antiphospholipid antibodies. Blood Coag. Fibrinolysis7(4), 497–501 (1996).
  • Sanchez-Guerrero J, Uribe AG, Jimenez-Santana L et al. A trial of contraceptive methods in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med.353(24), 2539–2549 (2005).
  • Petri M, Kim MY, Kalunian KC et al. Combined oral contraceptives in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med.353(24), 2550–2558 (2005).
  • Wahl DG, Bounameaux H, de Moerloose P, Sarasin FP. Prophylactic antithrombotic therapy for patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with or without antiphospholipid antibodies: do the benefits outweigh the risks? A decision analysis. Arch. Intern. Med.160(13), 2042–2048 (2000).
  • Erkan D, Harrison MJ, Levy R et al. Aspirin for primary thrombosis prevention in the antiphospholipid syndrome – a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in asymptomatic antiphospholipid antibody-positive individuals. Arthritis Rheum.56(7), 2382–2391 (2007).
  • Erkan D, Yazici Y, Peterson MG, Sammaritano L, Lockshin MD. A cross-sectional study of clinical thrombotic risk factors and preventive treatments in antiphospholipid syndrome. Rheumatology41, 924–929 (2002).
  • Petri M. Hydroxychloroquine use in the Baltimore Lupus Cohort: effects on lipids, glucose and thrombosis. Lupus1(5 Suppl.), S16–S22 (1996).
  • Siso A, Ramos-Casals M, Bove A et al. Previous antimalarial therapy in patients diagnosed with lupus nephritis: Influence on outcomes and survival. Lupus17(4), 281–288 (2008).
  • De Leeuw K, Freire B, Srnit AJ, Bootsma H, Kallenberg CG, Bijl M. Traditional and non-traditional risk factors contribute to the development of accelerated atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus15(10), 675–682 (2006).
  • Gonzalez MA, Selwyn AP. Endothelial function, inflammation, and prognosis in cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Med.115(8A), S99–S106 (2003).
  • Wallace DJ, Kinker-Isreli M, Metzger AL, Stecher VJ. The relevance of antimalarial therapy with regard to thrombosis, hypercholesterolemia and cytokines in SLE. Lupus2(Suppl. 1), S13–S15 (1993).
  • Ruiz-Irastorza G, Egurbide MV, Pijoan JI et al. Effect of antimalarials on thrombosis and survival in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus15, 577–583 (2006).
  • Pons-Estel GJ, Alarcon GS, McGwin G Jr et al. Protective effect of hydroxychloroquine on renal damage in patients with lupus nephritis: LXV, data from a multiethnic US cohort. Arthritis Rheum.61(6), 830–839 (2009).
  • Alarcon GS, McGwin G Jr, Bertoli AM et al. Effect of hydroxychloroquine in the survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Data from LUMINA, a multiethnic us cohort (LUMINA L). Ann. Rheum. Dis.66, 1168–1172 (2007).
  • Schulman S, Svenungsson E, Granqvist S; The Duration of Anticoagulation Study Group. Anticardiolipin antibodies predict early recurrence of thromboembolism and death among patients with venous thromboembolism following anticoagulant therapy. Am. J. Med.104, 332–338 (1998).
  • Crowther MA, Ginsberg JS, Julian J et al. A comparison of two intensities of warfarin for the prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med.349(12), 1133–1138 (2003).
  • Finazzi G, Marchioli R, Brancaccio V et al. A randomized clinical trial of high-intensity warfarin vs conventional antithrombotic therapy for the prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with the antiphospholipid syndrome(WAPS). J. Thromb. Haemost.3(5), 848–853 (2005).
  • Ruiz-Irastorza G, Hunt BJ, Khamashta MA. Secondary thromboprophylaxis in antiphospholipid syndrome: A systematic review. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol.25(2), 129–129 (2007).
  • Rosove MH, Brewer PM. Antiphospholipid thrombosis: clinical course after the first thrombotic event in 70 patients. Ann. Intern. Med.117, 303–308 (1992).
  • Wu HF, Birmingham DJ, Rovin B et al. D-dimer level and the risk for thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.3(6), 1628–1636 (2008).
  • Takeuchi F, McGinnis R, Bourgeois S et al. A genome-wide association study confirms VKORC1, CYP2C9, and CYP4F2 as principal genetic determinants of warfarin dose. Plos Genetics5(3), e1000433 (2009) (Epub ahead of print).
  • Perez-Andreu V, Roldan V, Anton AI et al. Pharmacogenetic relevance of CYP4F2 V433M polymorphism on acenocoumarol therapy. Blood113(20), 4977–4979 (2009).
  • Meckley LM, Wittkowsky AK, Rieder MJ, Rettie AE, Veenstra DL. An analysis of the relative effects of VKORCI and CYP2C9 variants on anticoagulation related outcomes in warfarin-treated patients. Thromb. Haemost.100(2), 229–239 (2008).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.