Why should a doctor be interested in oral disease?

References

• Bass CC. The necessity for effective dental health service in cardiology. Am. Heart J.69, 718–719 (1965).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• DeStefano F, Anda RF, Kahn HS, Williamson DF, Russell CM. Dental disease and risk of coronary heart disease and mortality. BMJ306(6879), 688–691 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajawani S, Matilla KJ, Tilvis RS, Ainamo A. Periodontal diseases and the risk of coronary heart disease and mortality in an aged population. Spec. Care Dent.23, 125–130 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holmlund A, Holm G, Lind L. Number of teeth as a predictor of cardiovascular mortality in a cohort of 7,674 subjects followed for 12 years. J. Periodontol.81(6), 870–876 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saremi A, Nelson RG, Tulloch-Reid M et al. Periodontal disease and mortality in Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care28(1), 27–32 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shultis WA, Weil EJ, Looker HC et al. Effect of periodontitis on overt nephropathy and end-stage renal disease in Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care30(2), 306–311 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kshirsagar AV, Offenbacher S, Moss KL, Barros SP, Beck JD. Antibodies to periodontal organisms are associated with decreased kidney function. The Dental Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities study. Blood Purif.25(1), 125–132 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kshirsagar AV, Craig RG, Moss KL et al. Periodontal disease adversely affects the survival of patients with end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int.75(7), 746–751 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seymour GJ, Ford PJ, Cullinan MP, Leishman S, Yamazaki K. Relationship between periodontal infections and systemic disease. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.13(Suppl. 4), 3–10 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheiham A, Netuveli GS. Periodontal diseases in Europe. Periodontol. 200029, 104–121 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demmer RT, Papapanou PN. Epidemiologic patterns of chronic and aggressive periodontitis. Periodontol. 200053, 28–44 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cullinan MP, Hamlet SM, Westerman B, Palmer JE, Faddy MJ, Seymour GJ. Acquisition and loss of Porphyromonas gingivalis, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Prevotella intermedia over a 5-year period: effect of a triclosan/copolymer dentifrice. J. Clin. Periodontol.30(6), 532–541 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahanonda R, Pichyangkul S. Toll-like receptors and their role in periodontal health and disease. Periodontol. 200043, 41–55 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seymour GJ, Taylor JJ. Shouts and whispers: an introduction to immunoregulation in periodontal disease. Periodontol. 200035, 9–13, 2004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohlrich EJ, Cullinan MP, Seymour GJ. The immunopathogenesis of periodontal disease. Aust. Dent. J.54(Suppl. 1), S2–S10 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cullinan MP, Ford PJ, Seymour GJ. Periodontal disease and systemic health: current status. Aust. Dent. J.54(Suppl. 1), S62–S69 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syrjanen J, Valtonen VV, Iivanainen M, Kaste M, Huttunen JK. Preceding infection as an important risk factor for ischaemic brain infarction in young and middle aged patients. Br. Med. J.296(6630), 1156–1160 (1988).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grau AJ, Buggle F, Heindl S et al. Recent infection as a risk factor for cerebrovascular ischemia. Stroke26(3), 373–379 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature420, 868–874 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansson GK. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med.352, 1685–1695, (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libby P, Ridker PM, Hansson GK. Inflammation in atherosclerosis; from pathophysiology to practice. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.54, 2129–2138 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melnick SL, Shahar E, Folsom AR et al. Past infection by Chlamydia pneumoniae strain TWAR and asymptomatic carotid atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study Investigators. Am. J. Med.95(5), 499–504 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grau AJ, Buggle F, Ziegler C et al. Association between acute cerebrovascular ischemia and chronic and recurrent infection. Stroke28(9), 1724–1729 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valtonen VV. Role of infections in atherosclerosis. Am. Heart J.138(5 Pt 2), S431–S433 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck J, Garcia R, Heiss G, Vokonas PS, Offenbacher S. Periodontal disease and cardiovascular disease. J. Periodontol.67(10 Suppl.), 1123–1137 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung HC, Willett W, Merchant A, Rosner BA, Ascherio A, Joshipura KJ. Oral health and peripheral arterial disease. Circulation107(8), 1152–1157 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desvarieux M, Demmer RT, Rundek T et al. Relationship between periodontal disease, tooth loss, and carotid artery plaque: the Oral Infections and Vascular Disease Epidemiology Study (INVEST). Stroke34(9), 2120–2125 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansson L, Lavstedt S, Frithiof L, Theobald H. Relationship between oral health and mortality in cardiovascular diseases. J. Clin. Periodontol.28(8), 762–768 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison HI, Ellison LF, Taylor GW. Periodontal disease and risk of fatal coronary heart and cerebrovascular diseases. J. Cardiovasc. Risk6(1), 7–11 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tuominen R, Reunanen A, Paunio M, Paunio I, Aromaa A. Oral health indicators poorly predict coronary heart disease deaths. J. Dent. Res.82(9), 713–718 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howell TH, Ridker PM, Ajani UA, Hennekens CH, Christen WG. Periodontal disease and risk of subsequent cardiovascular disease in U.S. male physicians. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.37(2), 445–450 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hujoel PP, Drangsholt M, Spiekerman C, DeRouen TA. Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease risk. JAMA284(11), 1406–1410 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janket SJ, Baird AE, Chuang SK, Jones JA. Meta-analysis of periodontal disease and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Oral Radiol. Endod.95(5), 559–569 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khader YS, Albashaireh ZS, Alomari MA. Periodontal diseases and the risk of coronary heart and cerebrovascular diseases: a meta-analysis. J. Periodontol.75(8), 1046–1053 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humphrey LL, Fu R, Buckley DI, Freeman M, Helfand M. Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Gen. Intern. Med.23(12), 2079–2086 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor BA, Tofler GH, Carey HM et al. Full-mouth tooth extraction lowers systemic inflammatory and thrombotic markers of cardiovascular risk. J. Dent. Res.85(1), 74–78 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hujoel PP, Drangsholt M, Spiekerman C, Derouen TA. Examining the link between coronary heart disease and the elimination of chronic dental infections. J. Am. Dent. Assoc.132(7), 883–889 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mercanoglu F, Oflaz H, Oz O et al. Endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic periodontitis and its improvement after initial periodontal therapy. J. Periodontol.75(12), 1694–1700 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amar S, Gokce N, Morgan S, Loukideli M, Van Dyke TE, Vita JA. Periodontal disease is associated with brachial artery endothelial dysfunction and systemic inflammation. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.23(7), 1245–1249 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford PJ, Gemmell E, Chan A et al. Inflammation, heat shock proteins and periodontal pathogens in atherosclerosis: an immunohistologic study. Oral Microbiol. Immunol.21(4), 206–211 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ford PJ, Gemmell E, Timms P, Chan A, Preston FM, Seymour GJ. Anti-P. gingivalis response correlates with atherosclerosis. J. Dent. Res.86(1), 35–40 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Consensus report. Periodontal diseases: pathogenesis and microbial factors. Ann. Periodontol.1(1), 926–932 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Kruif MD, van Gorp EC, Keller TT, Ossewaarde JM, ten Cate H. Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in mouse models: relevance for atherosclerosis research. Cardiovasc. Res.65(2), 317–327 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell LA, Kuo CC, Grayston JT. Chlamydia pneumoniae and cardiovascular disease. Emerg. Infect. Dis.4(4), 571–579 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kojima T, Yasui S, Ishikawa I. Distribution of Porphyromonas gingivalis in adult periodontitis patients. J. Periodontol.64(12), 1231–1237 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloemenkamp DG, Mali WP, Visseren FL, van der Graaf Y. Meta-analysis of sero-epidemiologic studies of the relation between Chlamydia pneumoniae and atherosclerosis: does study design influence results? Am. Heart J.145(3), 409–417 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochrane M, Pospischil A, Walker P, Gibbs H, Timms P. Discordant detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae in patients with carotid artery disease using polymerase chain reaction, immunofluorescence microscopy and serological methods. Pathology37(1), 69–75 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moazed TC, Campbell LA, Rosenfeld ME, Grayston JT, Kuo CC. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection accelerates the progression of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J. Infect. Dis.180(1), 238–241 (1999).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lalla E, Lamster IB, Hofmann MA et al. Oral infection with a periodontal pathogen accelerates early atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-null mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.23(8), 1405–1411 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li L, Messas E, Batista EL Jr, Levine RA, Amar S. Porphyromonas gingivalis infection accelerates the progression of atherosclerosis in a heterozygous apolipoprotein E-deficient murine model. Circulation105(7), 861–867 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell JH, Campbell GR. The cell biology of atherosclerosis – new developments. Aust. N. Z. J. Med.27(4), 497–500 (1997).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Polla BS. A role for heat shock proteins in inflammation? Immunol. Today9(5), 134–137 (1988).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fink AL. Chaperone-mediated protein folding. Physiol. Rev.79(2), 425–449 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kauffman S. Heat shock proteins and the immune response. Immunol. Today11(4), 129–136 (1990).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wick G, Perschinka H, Xu Q. Autoimmunity and atherosclerosis. Am. Heart J.138(5 Pt 2), S444–S449 (1999).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metzler B, Schett G, Kleindienst R et al. Epitope specificity of anti-heat shock protein 65/60 serum antibodies in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.17(3), 536–541 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu J, Quyyumi AA, Rott D et al. Antibodies to human heat-shock protein 60 are associated with the presence and severity of coronary artery disease: evidence for an autoimmune component of atherogenesis. Circulation103(8), 1071–1075 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr M, Metzler B, Kiechl S et al. Endothelial cytotoxicity mediated by serum antibodies to heat shock proteins of Escherichia coli and Chlamydia pneumoniae: immune reactions to heat shock proteins as a possible link between infection and atherosclerosis. Circulation99(12), 1560–1566 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellins E, Shamaei-Tousi A, Steptoe A et al. The relationship between carotid stiffness and circulating levels of heat shock protein 60 in middle-aged men and women. J. Hypertens.26(12), 2389–2392 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pockley AG, Wu R, Lemne C, Kiessling R, de Faire U, Frostegard J. Circulating heat shock protein 60 is associated with early cardiovascular disease. Hypertension36(2), 303–307 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welch WJ. Heat shock proteins functioning as molecular chaperones: their roles in normal and stressed cells. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.339(1289), 327–333 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hotokezaka H, Hayashida H, Ohara N, Nomaguchi H, Kobayashi K, Yamada T. Cloning and sequencing of the GroESL homologue from Porphyromonas gingivalis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta1219(1), 175–178 (1994).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maeda H, Miyamoto M, Hongyo H, Nagai A, Kurihara H, Murayama Y. Heat shock protein 60 (GroEL) from Porphyromonas gingivalis: molecular cloning and sequence analysis of its gene and purification of the recombinant protein. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.119(1–2), 129–135 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabeta K, Yamazaki K, Hotokezaka H, Yoshie H, Hara K. Elevated humoral immune response to heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) family in periodontitis patients. Clin. Exp. Immunol.120(2), 285–293 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukhopadhyay S, Good D, Miller RD et al. Identification of Chlamydia pneumoniae proteins in the transition from reticulate to elementary body formation. Mol. Cell. Proteomics5(12), 2311–2318 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yi Y, Zhong G, Brunham RC. Continuous B-cell epitopes in Chlamydia trachomatis heat shock protein 60. Infect. Immun.61(3), 1117–1120 (1993).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andraws R, Berger JS, Brown DL. Effects of antibiotic therapy on outcomes of patients with coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA293(21), 2641–2647 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George J, Shoenfeld Y, Afek A et al. Enhanced fatty streak formation in C57BL/6J mice by immunization with heat shock protein-65. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol.19(3), 505–510 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wick G, Perschinka H, Millonig G. Atherosclerosis as an autoimmune disease: an update. Trends Immunol.22(12), 665–669 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakashima Y, Plump AS, Raines EW, Breslow JL, Ross R. ApoE-deficient mice develop lesions of all phases of atherosclerosis throughout the arterial tree. Arterioscler. Thromb.14(1), 133–140 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun JB, Czerkinsky C, Holmgren J. Sublingual ‘oral tolerance’ induction with antigen conjugated to cholera toxin B subunit generates regulatory T cells that induce apoptosis and depletion of effector T cells. Scand. J. Immunol.66(2–3), 278–286 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novak N, Haberstok J, Bieber T, Allam JP. The immune privilege of the oral mucosa. Trends Mol. Med.14(5), 191–198 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson DR, Torres LI, Durham SR. Sublingual immunotherapy for allergic rhinitis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (2), CD002893 (2003).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Czerkinsky C, Russell MW, Lycke N, Lindblad M, Holmgren J. Oral administration of a streptococcal antigen coupled to cholera toxin B subunit evokes strong antibody responses in salivary glands and extramucosal tissues. Infect. Immun.57(4), 1072–1077 (1989).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandy AG, Hultkrantz S, Raghavan S et al. Oral tolerance induction by mucosal administration of cholera toxin B-coupled antigen involves T-cell proliferation in vivo and is not affected by depletion of CD25 + T cells. Immunology118(3), 311–320 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cheng X, Yu X, Ding YJ et al. The Th17/Treg imbalance in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Clin. Immunol.127(1), 89–97 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein SE. The multiple mechanisms by which infection may contribute to atherosclerosis development and course. Circ. Res.90(1), 2–4 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeda K, Akira S. Toll-like receptors in innate immunity. Int. Immunol.17(1), 1–14 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyamoto T, Yumoto H, Takahashi Y, Davey M, Gibson FC 3rd, Genco CA. Pathogen-accelerated atherosclerosis occurs early after exposure and can be prevented via immunization. Infect. Immun.74(2), 1376–1380 (2006).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Madan M, Amar S. Toll-like receptor-2 mediates diet and/or pathogen associated atherosclerosis: proteomic findings. PLoS One3(9), e3204 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu XH, Shah PK, Faure E et al. Toll-like receptor-4 is expressed by macrophages in murine and human lipid-rich atherosclerotic plaques and upregulated by oxidized LDL. Circulation104(25), 3103–3108 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson FC 3rd, Hong C, Chou HH et al. Innate immune recognition of invasive bacteria accelerates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation109(22), 2801–2806 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danesh J, Wheeler JG, Hirschfield GM et al. C-reactive protein and other circulating markers of inflammation in the prediction of coronary heart disease. N. Engl. J. Med.350, 1387–1397, (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slade GD. Interim analysis of validity of periodontitis screening questions in the Australian population. J. Periodontol.78(7 Suppl.), 1463–1470 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grossman E, Reiter G, Sturzenburger OP. Six-month study of the effects of a chlorhexidine mouthrinse on gingivitis in adults. J. Periodont. Res. Suppl.16, 33–43 (1986).
   Google Scholar
• Flotra L, Gjermo P, Rolla G, Waerhaug J. A 4-month study on the effect of chlorhexidine mouth washes on 50 soldiers. Scand. J. Dent. Res.80(1), 10–17 (1972).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Overholser CD, Meiller TF, DePaola LG, Minah GE, Niehaus C. Comparative effects of 2 chemotherapeutic mouthrinses on the development of supragingival dental plaque and gingivitis. J. Clin. Periodontol.17(8), 575–579 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brecx M, Brownstone E, MacDonald L, Gelskey S, Cheang M. Efficacy of Listerine, Meridol and chlorhexidine mouthrinses as supplements to regular tooth cleaning measures. J. Clin. Periodontol.19(3), 202–207 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma N, Charles CH, Lynch MC et al. Adjunctive benefit of an essential oil-containing mouthrinse in reducing plaque and gingivitis in patients who brush and floss regularly: a six-month study. J. Am. Dent. Assoc.135(4), 496–504 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen DR, Davies R, Bradshaw B et al. Efficacy of a mouthrinse containing 0.05% cetylpyridinium chloride for the control of plaque and gingivitis: a 6-month clinical study in adults. Compend. Contin. Educ. Dent.19(2 Suppl.), 20–26 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lobene RR, Kashket S, Soparkar PM, Shloss J, Sabine ZM. The effect of cetylpridinium chloride on human plaque bacteria and gingivitis. Pharmacol. Ther. Dent.4(1), 33–47 (1979).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davies RM, Ellwood RP, Davies GM. The effectiveness of a toothpaste containing triclosan and polyvinyl-methyl ether maleic acid copolymer in improving plaque control and gingival health: a systematic review. J. Clin. Periodontol.31(12), 1029–1033 (2004).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gunsolley JC. A meta-analysis of six-month studies of antiplaque and antigingivitis agents. J. Am. Dent. Assoc.137(12), 1649–1657 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blinkhorn A, Bartold PM, Cullinan MP et al. Is there a role for triclosan/copolymer toothpaste in the management of periodontal disease? Br. Dent. J.207(3), 117–125 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axelsson P, Nystrom B, Lindhe J. The long-term effect of a plaque control program on tooth mortality, caries and periodontal disease in adults. Results after 30 years of maintenance. J. Clin. Periodontol.31(9), 749–757 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramfjord SP, Knowles JW, Nissle RR, Shick RA, Burgett FG. Longitudinal study of periodontal therapy. J. Periodontol.44(2), 66–77 (1973).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suomi JD, Greene JC, Vermillion JR, Doyle J, Chang JJ, Leatherwood EC. The effect of controlled oral hygiene procedures on the progression of periddontal disease in adults: results after third and final year. J. Periodontol.42(3), 152–160 (1971).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Offenbacher S, Beck JD, Moss K et al. Results from the Periodontitis and Vascular Events (PAVE) study: a pilot multicentered, randomized, controlled trial to study effects of periodontal therapy in a secondary prevention model of cardiovascular disease. J. Periodontol.80(2), 190–201 (2009).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar