352
Views
33
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Management and prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by multidrug-resistant pathogens

, , , &
Pages 533-555 | Published online: 09 Jan 2014

References

  • Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP. Nosocomial infections in medical intensive care units in the United States. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Crit. Care Med. 27(5), 887–892 (1999).
  • Chastre J, Fagon JY. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165(7), 867–903 (2002).
  • Dudeck MA, Horan TC, Peterson KD et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) report, data summary for 2009, device-associated module. Am. J. Infect. Control 39(5), 349–367 (2011).
  • Edwards JR, Peterson KD, Mu Y et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) report: data summary for 2006 through 2008, issued December 2009. Am. J. Infect. Control 37(10), 783–805 (2009).
  • Dudeck MA, Horan TC, Peterson KD et al. National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Report, data summary for 2010, device-associated module. Am. J. Infect. Control 39(10), 798–816 (2011).
  • Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. American Thoracic Documents. Approved by the ATS Borad of Directors and the IDSA Guideline Committee. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 171(4), 388–416 (2005).
  • Tablan OC, Anderson LJ, Besser R, Bridges C, Hajjeh R; CDC; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated pneumonia, 2003: recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 53(RR-3), 1–36 (2004).
  • Kollef MH, Hamilton CW, Ernst FR. Economic impact of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a large matched cohort. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 33(3), 250–256 (2012).
  • Unroe M, Kahn JM, Carson SS et al. One-year trajectories of care and resource utilization for recipients of prolonged mechanical ventilation: a cohort study. Ann. Intern. Med. 153(3), 167–175 (2010).
  • Baraibar J, Correa H, Mariscal D, Gallego M, Vallés J, Rello J. Risk factors for infection by Acinetobacter baumannii in intubated patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Chest 112(4), 1050–1054 (1997).
  • Nicasio AM, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP. The current state of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli in North America. Pharmacotherapy 28(2), 235–249 (2008).
  • Cross JT Jr, Campbell GD Jr. Drug-resistant pathogens in community- and hospital-acquired pneumonia. Clin. Chest Med. 20(3), 499–506 (1999).
  • McGowan JE Jr. Resistance in nonfermenting Gram-negative bacteria: multidrug resistance to the maximum. Am. J. Infect. Control 34(5 Suppl. 1), S29–S37; discussion S64 (2006).
  • Cosgrove SE. The relationship between antimicrobial resistance and patient outcomes: mortality, length of hospital stay, and health care costs. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42(Suppl. 2), S82–S89 (2006).
  • Crnich CJ, Safdar N, Maki DG. The role of the intensive care unit environment in the pathogenesis and prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir. Care 50(6), 813–836; discussion 836 (2005).
  • Niederman MS. The clinical diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir. Care 50(6), 788–796; discussion 807 (2005).
  • Cook DJ, Walter SD, Cook RJ et al. Incidence of and risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients. Ann. Intern. Med. 129(6), 433–440 (1998).
  • Joseph NM, Sistla S, Dutta TK, Badhe AS, Parija SC. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: a review. Eur. J. Intern. Med. 21(5), 360–368 (2010).
  • Kollef MH, Afessa B, Anzueto A et al.; NASCENT Investigation Group. Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: the NASCENT randomized trial. JAMA 300(7), 805–813 (2008).
  • Bauer TT, Torres A, Ferrer R, Heyer CM, Schultze-Werninghaus G, Rasche K. Biofilm formation in endotracheal tubes. Association between pneumonia and the persistence of pathogens. Monaldi Arch. Chest Dis. 57(1), 84–87 (2002).
  • Inglis TJ, Millar MR, Jones JG, Robinson DA. Tracheal tube biofilm as a source of bacterial colonization of the lung. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27(9), 2014–2018 (1989).
  • El Solh AA, Akinnusi ME, Wiener-Kronish JP, Lynch SV, Pineda LA, Szarpa K. Persistent infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 178(5), 513–519 (2008).
  • Alcón A, Fàbregas N, Torres A. Pathophysiology of pneumonia. Clin. Chest Med. 26(1), 39–46 (2005).
  • Paterson DL. The epidemiological profile of infections with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43(Suppl. 2), S43–S48 (2006).
  • Akça O, Koltka K, Uzel S et al. Risk factors for early-onset, ventilator-associated pneumonia in critical care patients: selected multiresistant versus nonresistant bacteria. Anesthesiology 93(3), 638–645 (2000).
  • Wolkewitz M, Vonberg RP, Grundmann H et al. Risk factors for the development of nosocomial pneumonia and mortality on intensive care units: application of competing risks models. Crit. Care 12(2), R44 (2008).
  • Langer M, Mosconi P, Cigada M, Mandelli M. Long-term respiratory support and risk of pneumonia in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Unit Group of Infection Control. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 140(2), 302–305 (1989).
  • Driks MR, Craven DE, Celli BR et al. Nosocomial pneumonia in intubated patients given sucralfate as compared with antacids or histamine type 2 blockers. The role of gastric colonization. N. Engl. J. Med. 317(22), 1376–1382 (1987).
  • Cook DJ, Laine LA, Guyatt GH, Raffin TA. Nosocomial pneumonia and the role of gastric pH. A meta-analysis. Chest 100(1), 7–13 (1991).
  • Bonten MJ, Gaillard CA, de Leeuw PW, Stobberingh EE. Role of colonization of the upper intestinal tract in the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 24(3), 309–319 (1997).
  • Safdar N, Crnich CJ, Maki DG. The pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: its relevance to developing effective strategies for prevention. Respir. Care 50(6), 725–739; discussion 739 (2005).
  • Rea-Neto A, Youssef NC, Tuche F et al. Diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review of the literature. Crit. Care 12(2), R56 (2008).
  • Kalil AC, Sun J, Teixeira PJ. Diagnosis of pneumonia in the critically ill patient: is it time to abandon bronchoscopy? Crit. Care Med. 36(1), 344–345 (2008).
  • Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. A randomized trial of diagnostic techniques for ventilator-associated pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 355(25), 2619–2630 (2006).
  • Luyt CE, Chastre J, Fagon JY. Value of the clinical pulmonary infection score for the identification and management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 30(5), 844–852 (2004).
  • Zilberberg MD, Shorr AF. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: the clinical pulmonary infection score as a surrogate for diagnostics and outcome. Clin. Infect. Dis. 51 (Suppl. 1), S131–S135 (2010).
  • Johanson WG Jr, Pierce AK, Sanford JP, Thomas GD. Nosocomial respiratory infections with Gram-negative bacilli. The significance of colonization of the respiratory tract. Ann. Intern. Med. 77(5), 701–706 (1972).
  • Fàbregas N, Ewig S, Torres A et al. Clinical diagnosis of ventilator associated pneumonia revisited: comparative validation using immediate post-mortem lung biopsies. Thorax 54(10), 867–873 (1999).
  • Ashraf M, Ostrosky-Zeichner L. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: a review. Hosp. Pract. (Minneap). 40(1), 93–105 (2012).
  • Shorr AF, Sherner JH, Jackson WL, Kollef MH. Invasive approaches to the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Crit. Care Med. 33(1), 46–53 (2005).
  • Ruiz M, Torres A, Ewig S et al. Noninvasive versus invasive microbial investigation in ventilator-associated pneumonia: evaluation of outcome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162(1), 119–125 (2000).
  • Bouadma L, Luyt CE, Tubach F et al.; PRORATA trial group. Use of procalcitonin to reduce patients’ exposure to antibiotics in intensive care units (PRORATA trial): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 375(9713), 463–474 (2010).
  • Stolz D, Smyrnios N, Eggimann P et al. Procalcitonin for reduced antibiotic exposure in ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomised study. Eur. Respir. J. 34(6), 1364–1375 (2009).
  • Aliberti S, Di Pasquale M, Zanaboni AM et al. Stratifying risk factors for multidrug-resistant pathogens in hospitalized patients coming from the community with pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54(4), 470–478 (2012).
  • Wisplinghoff H, Bischoff T, Tallent SM, Seifert H, Wenzel RP, Edmond MB. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in US hospitals: analysis of 24,179 cases from a prospective nationwide surveillance study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39(3), 309–317 (2004).
  • Kalil AC, Murthy MH, Hermsen ED, Neto FK, Sun J, Rupp ME. Linezolid versus vancomycin or teicoplanin for nosocomial pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit. Care Med. 38(9), 1802–1808 (2010).
  • Scanvic A, Denic L, Gaillon S, Giry P, Andremont A, Lucet JC. Duration of colonization by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after hospital discharge and risk factors for prolonged carriage. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32(10), 1393–1398 (2001).
  • Marschall J, Mühlemann K. Duration of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage, according to risk factors for acquisition. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 27(11), 1206–1212 (2006).
  • Soriano A, Martínez JA, Mensa J et al. Pathogenic significance of methicillin resistance for patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(2), 368–373 (2000).
  • Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN, Schwaber MJ, Karchmer AW, Carmeli Y. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(1), 53–59 (2003).
  • Lodise TP, Lomaestro B, Graves J, Drusano GL. Larger vancomycin doses (at least four grams per day) are associated with an increased incidence of nephrotoxicity. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(4), 1330–1336 (2008).
  • Moise-Broder PA, Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos GM, Schentag JJ, Forrest A, Moellering RC Jr. Accessory gene regulator group II polymorphism in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is predictive of failure of vancomycin therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38(12), 1700–1705 (2004).
  • Dhand A, Sakoulas G. Reduced vancomycin susceptibility among clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates (‘the MIC Creep’): implications for therapy. F1000 Med. Rep. 4, 4 (2012).
  • Boyer EW, Shannon M. The serotonin syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 352(11), 1112–1120 (2005).
  • Sánchez García M, De la Torre MA, Morales G et al. Clinical outbreak of linezolid-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an intensive care unit. JAMA 303(22), 2260–2264 (2010).
  • Rubinstein E, Cammarata S, Oliphant T, Wunderink R; Linezolid Nosocomial Pneumonia Study Group. Linezolid (PNU-100766) versus vancomycin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32(3), 402–412 (2001).
  • Wunderink RG, Cammarata SK, Oliphant TH, Kollef MH; Linezolid Nosocomial Pneumonia Study Group. Continuation of a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of linezolid versus vancomycin in the treatment of patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Clin. Ther. 25(3), 980–992 (2003).
  • Wunderink RG, Rello J, Cammarata SK, Croos-Dabrera RV, Kollef MH. Linezolid vs vancomycin: analysis of two double-blind studies of patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia. Chest 124(5), 1789–1797 (2003).
  • Kollef MH, Rello J, Cammarata SK, Croos-Dabrera RV, Wunderink RG. Clinical cure and survival in Gram-positive ventilator-associated pneumonia: retrospective analysis of two double-blind studies comparing linezolid with vancomycin. Intensive Care Med. 30(3), 388–394 (2004).
  • Rybak M, Lomaestro B, Rotschafer JC et al. Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin in adult patients: a consensus review of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Am. J. Health. Syst. Pharm. 66(1), 82–98 (2009).
  • Wunderink RG, Niederman MS, Kollef MH et al. Linezolid in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, controlled study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54(5), 621–629 (2012).
  • Torres A. Antibiotic treatment against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus hospital- and ventilator-acquired pneumonia: a step forward but the battle continues. Clin. Infect. Dis. 54(5), 630–632 (2012).
  • Barbarroja N, López-Pedrera R, Mayas MD et al. The obese healthy paradox: is inflammation the answer? Biochem. J. 430(1), 141–149 (2010).
  • Niederman MS. Treatment options for nosocomial pneumonia due to MRSA. J. Infect. 59(Suppl. 1), S25–S31 (2009).
  • Schwaber MJ, Navon-Venezia S, Kaye KS, Ben-Ami R, Schwartz D, Carmeli Y. Clinical and economic impact of bacteremia with extended-spectrum-β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50(4), 1257–1262 (2006).
  • Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Bradley JS et al. Bad bugs, no drugs: no ESKAPE! An update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48(1), 1–12 (2009).
  • Sun HY, Fujitani S, Quintiliani R, Yu VL. Pneumonia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa: part II: antimicrobial resistance, pharmacodynamic concepts, and antibiotic therapy. Chest 139(5), 1172–1185 (2011).
  • Friedmann R, Raveh D, Zartzer E et al. Prospective evaluation of colonization with extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing enterobacteriaceae among patients at hospital admission and of subsequent colonization with ESBL-producing enterobacteriaceae among patients during hospitalization. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 30(6), 534–542 (2009).
  • Nguile-Makao M, Zahar JR, Français A et al. Attributable mortality of ventilator-associated pneumonia: respective impact of main characteristics at ICU admission and VAP onset using conditional logistic regression and multi-state models. Intensive Care Med. 36(5), 781–789 (2010).
  • Hirsch EB, Tam VH. Detection and treatment options for Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemases (KPCs): an emerging cause of multidrug-resistant infection. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 65(6), 1119–1125 (2010).
  • Poirel L, Nordmann P, Lagrutta E, Cleary T, Munoz-Price LS. Emergence of KPC-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 54(7), 3072 (2010).
  • Robledo IE, Aquino EE, Santé MI et al. Detection of KPC in Acinetobacter spp. in Puerto Rico. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(3), 1354–1357 (2010).
  • Srinivasan A, Patel JB. Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-producing organisms: an ounce of prevention really is worth a pound of cure. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 29(12), 1107–1109 (2008).
  • Chim CS, Ho J, Ooi GC, Choy C, Liang R. Primary anaplastic large cell lymphoma of the pancreas. Leuk. Lymphoma 46(3), 457–459 (2005).
  • Nordmann P, Cuzon G, Naas T. The real threat of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-producing bacteria. Lancet Infect. Dis. 9(4), 228–236 (2009).
  • Bratu S, Landman D, Haag R et al. Rapid spread of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in New York City: a new threat to our antibiotic armamentarium. Arch. Intern. Med. 165(12), 1430–1435 (2005).
  • Marchaim D, Navon-Venezia S, Schwaber MJ, Carmeli Y. Isolation of imipenem-resistant Enterobacter species: emergence of KPC-2 carbapenemase, molecular characterization, epidemiology, and outcomes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52(4), 1413–1418 (2008).
  • Cuzon G, Naas T, Fortineau N, Nordmann P. Novel chromogenic medium for detection of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46(7), 2442–2444 (2008).
  • Bratu S, Tolaney P, Karumudi U et al. Carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in Brooklyn, NY: molecular epidemiology and in vitro activity of polymyxin B and other agents. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 56(1), 128–132 (2005).
  • Castanheira M, Mendes RE, Rhomberg PR, Jones RN. Rapid emergence of blaCTX-M among Enterobacteriaceae in U.S. Medical Centers: molecular evaluation from the MYSTIC Program (2007). Microb. Drug Resist. 14(3), 211–216 (2008).
  • Zavascki AP, Soares FC, Superti SV, Silbert S, Silva FM, Barth AL. Stable carbapenem susceptibility rates among multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter spp. strains in a setting of high prevalence of carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 30(2), 187–189 (2007).
  • Endimiani A, Choudhary Y, Bonomo RA. In vitro activity of NXL104 in combination with β-lactams against Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates producing KPC carbapenemases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53(8), 3599–3601 (2009).
  • Levin AS, Barone AA, Penço J et al. Intravenous colistin as therapy for nosocomial infections caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28(5), 1008–1011 (1999).
  • Garnacho-Montero J, Ortiz-Leyba C, Jiménez-Jiménez FJ et al. Treatment of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) with intravenous colistin: a comparison with imipenem-susceptible VAP. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36(9), 1111–1118 (2003).
  • Kallel H, Bahloul M, Hergafi L et al. Colistin as a salvage therapy for nosocomial infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria in the ICU. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 28(4), 366–369 (2006).
  • Montero A, Ariza J, Corbella X et al. Efficacy of colistin versus β-lactams, aminoglycosides, and rifampin as monotherapy in a mouse model of pneumonia caused by multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46(6), 1946–1952 (2002).
  • Daly MW, Riddle DJ, Ledeboer NA, Dunne WM, Ritchie DJ. Tigecycline for treatment of pneumonia and empyema caused by carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Pharmacotherapy 27(7), 1052–1057 (2007).
  • Gaynes R, Edwards JR; National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Overview of nosocomial infections caused by Gram-negative bacilli. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(6), 848–854 (2005).
  • Berra L, Sampson J, Wiener-Kronish J. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: acute lung injury or ventilator-associated pneumonia? Minerva Anestesiol. 76(10), 824–832 (2010).
  • Montero M, Sala M, Riu M et al. Risk factors for multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa acquisition. Impact of antibiotic use in a double case-control study. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29(3), 335–339 (2010).
  • Young LS. The role of exotoxins in the pathogenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. J. Infect. Dis. 142(4), 626–630 (1980).
  • Burgess DS. Curbing resistance development: maximizing the utility of available agents. J. Manag. Care Pharm. 15(Suppl. 5), S5–S9 (2009).
  • Zilberberg MD, Chen J, Mody SH, Ramsey AM, Shorr AF. Imipenem resistance of Pseudomonas in pneumonia: a systematic literature review. BMC Pulm. Med. 10, 45 (2010).
  • Munoz-Price LS, Weinstein RA. Acinetobacter infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 358(12), 1271–1281 (2008).
  • Fagon JY, Chastre J, Domart Y, Trouillet JL, Gibert C. Mortality due to ventilator-associated pneumonia or colonization with Pseudomonas or Acinetobacter species: assessment by quantitative culture of samples obtained by a protected specimen brush. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23(3), 538–542 (1996).
  • Kiratisin P, Apisarnthanarak A, Kaewdaeng S. Synergistic activities between carbapenems and other antimicrobial agents against Acinetobacter baumannii including multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant isolates. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 36(3), 243–246 (2010).
  • Oliveira MS, Prado GV, Costa SF, Grinbaum RS, Levin AS. Ampicillin/sulbactam compared with polymyxins for the treatment of infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter spp. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 61(6), 1369–1375 (2008).
  • Jellison TK, Mckinnon PS, Rybak MJ. Epidemiology, resistance, and outcomes of Acinetobacter baumannii bacteremia treated with imipenem-cilastatin or ampicillin-sulbactam. Pharmacotherapy 21(2), 142–148 (2001).
  • Kofteridis DP, Alexopoulou C, Valachis A et al. Aerosolized plus intravenous colistin versus intravenous colistin alone for the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a matched case-control study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 51(11), 1238–1244 (2010).
  • Rattanaumpawan P, Lorsutthitham J, Ungprasert P, Angkasekwinai N, Thamlikitkul V. Randomized controlled trial of nebulized colistimethate sodium as adjunctive therapy of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by Gram-negative bacteria. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 65(12), 2645–2649 (2010).
  • Hanes SD, Demirkan K, Tolley E et al. Risk factors for late-onset nosocomial pneumonia caused by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in critically ill trauma patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(3), 228–235 (2002).
  • Czosnowski QA, Wood GC, Magnotti LJ et al. Clinical and microbiologic outcomes in trauma patients treated for Stenotrophomonas maltophilia ventilator-associated pneumonia. Pharmacotherapy 31(4), 338–345 (2011).
  • Alfieri N, Ramotar K, Armstrong P et al. Two consecutive outbreaks of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (Xanthomonas maltophilia) in an intensive-care unit defined by restriction fragment-length polymorphism typing. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 20(8), 553–556 (1999).
  • Varghese JM, Roberts JA, Lipman J. Antimicrobial pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic issues in the critically ill with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit. Care Clin. 27(1), 19–34 (2011).
  • Bochud PY, Hawn TR, Aderem A. Cutting edge: a Toll-like receptor 2 polymorphism that is associated with lepromatous leprosy is unable to mediate mycobacterial signaling. J. Immunol. 170(7), 3451–3454 (2003).
  • Glauser FL. Derived pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressure: time for clinical application? Crit. Care Med. 19(11), 1335–1336 (1991).
  • Buerger C, Plock N, Dehghanyar P, Joukhadar C, Kloft C. Pharmacokinetics of unbound linezolid in plasma and tissue interstitium of critically ill patients after multiple dosing using microdialysis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50(7), 2455–2463 (2006).
  • Joukhadar C, Klein N, Frossard M et al. Angioplasty increases target site concentrations of ciprofloxacin in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 70(6), 532–539 (2001).
  • Ulldemolins M, Roberts JA, Rello J, Paterson DL, Lipman J. The effects of hypoalbuminaemia on optimizing antibacterial dosing in critically ill patients. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 50(2), 99–110 (2011).
  • Fleck BW, Bell AL, Mitchell JD, Thomson BJ, Hurst NP, Nuki G. Screening for antimalarial maculopathy in rheumatology clinics. Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed). 291(6498), 782–785 (1985).
  • Nicasio AM, Eagye KJ, Nicolau DP et al. Pharmacodynamic-based clinical pathway for empiric antibiotic choice in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia.J. Crit. Care 25(1), 69–77 (2010).
  • Van Wart SA, Andes DR, Ambrose PG, Bhavnani SM. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling to support doripenem dose regimen optimization for critically ill patients. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 63(4), 409–414 (2009).
  • Roberts JA, Kwa A, Montakantikul P, Gomersall C, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP. Pharmacodynamic profiling of intravenous antibiotics against prevalent Gram-negative organisms across the globe: the PASSPORT Program-Asia-Pacific Region. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 37(3), 225–229 (2011).
  • Lodise TP Jr, Lomaestro B, Drusano GL. Piperacillin-tazobactam for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: clinical implications of an extended-infusion dosing strategy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44(3), 357–363 (2007).
  • Roos JF, Bulitta J, Lipman J, Kirkpatrick CM. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic rationale for cefepime dosing regimens in intensive care units. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 58(5), 987–993 (2006).
  • Crandon JL, Ariano RE, Zelenitsky SA, Nicasio AM, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP. Optimization of meropenem dosage in the critically ill population based on renal function. Intensive Care Med. 37(4), 632–638 (2011).
  • Kuti JL, Nicasio AM, Sutherland CA, Nicolau DP. Elevated vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentrations among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia at a Connecticut hospital. Conn. Med. 73(6), 337–340 (2009).
  • Patel GW, Patel N, Lat A et al. Outcomes of extended infusion piperacillin/tazobactam for documented Gram-negative infections. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 64(2), 236–240 (2009).
  • McKinnon PS, Paladino JA, Schentag JJ. Evaluation of area under the inhibitory curve (AUIC) and time above the minimum inhibitory concentration (T>MIC) as predictors of outcome for cefepime and ceftazidime in serious bacterial infections. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 31(4), 345–351 (2008).
  • Lorente L, Jiménez A, Jiménez JJ, Iribarren JL, Martín MM, Mora ML. The catheter site influences in the micro-organism responsible of arterial catheter-related infection. Intensive Care Med. 32(11), 1919–1920 (2006).
  • Lorente L, Jiménez A, Martín MM, Iribarren JL, Jiménez JJ, Mora ML. Clinical cure of ventilator-associated pneumonia treated with piperacillin/tazobactam administered by continuous or intermittent infusion. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 33(5), 464–468 (2009).
  • Roberts JA, Webb S, Paterson D, Ho KM, Lipman J. A systematic review on clinical benefits of continuous administration of β-lactam antibiotics. Crit. Care Med. 37(6), 2071–2078 (2009).
  • CLSI. Development of In Vitro Susceptibility Testing Criteria and Quality Control Parameters; Approved Guideline – Third Edition. CLSI Document M23-A3. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA, USA (2008).
  • CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk Susceptibility Tests; Approved Standard – Eleventh Edition. CLSI Document M02-A11. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA, USA (2012).
  • CLSI. Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria That Grow Aerobically; Approved Standard – Ninth Edition. CLSI Document M07-A9. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA, USA (2012).
  • CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing; Twenty-Second Informational Supplement. CLSI Document M100-S22. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA, USA (2012).
  • CLSI. Methods for Antimicrobial Susceptiblity Testing of Anaerobic Bacteria; Approved Standard – Seventh Edition. CLSI Document M11-A7. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne, PA, USA (2007).
  • Klastersky J. Rational use of antibiotics. Brux. Med. 52(6), 421–429 (1972).
  • Niederman MS. Recent advances in community-acquired pneumonia: inpatient and outpatient. Chest 131(4), 1205–1215 (2007).
  • Palmer LB, Smaldone GC, Simon SR, O’Riordan TG, Cuccia A. Aerosolized antibiotics in mechanically ventilated patients: delivery and response. Crit. Care Med. 26(1), 31–39 (1998).
  • Luyt CE, Combes A, Nieszkowska A, Trouillet JL, Chastre J. Aerosolized antibiotics to treat ventilator-associated pneumonia. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 22(2), 154–158 (2009).
  • Miller M, Cespedes C, Vavagiakis P, Klein RS, Lowy FD. Staphylococcus aureus colonization in a community sample of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected drug users. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22(8), 463–469 (2003).
  • Ramsey BW, Dorkin HL, Eisenberg JD et al. Efficacy of aerosolized tobramycin in patients with cystic fibrosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 328(24), 1740–1746 (1993).
  • Dhand R. The role of aerosolized antimicrobials in the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir. Care 52(7), 866–884 (2007).
  • Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, Wagener MM, Yu VL. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit. A proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162(2 Pt 1), 505–511 (2000).
  • Inglis TJ. New insights into the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. J. Hosp. Infect. 30, 409–413 (1995).
  • Kuhn RJ. Pharmaceutical considerations in aerosol drug delivery. Pharmacotherapy 22(3 Pt 2), 80S–85S (2002).
  • Cerfolio RJ, McCarty T, Bryant AS. Non-imaged pulmonary nodules discovered during thoracotomy for metastasectomy by lung palpation. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 35(5), 786–791; discussion 791 (2009).
  • Dhand R. Aerosol delivery during mechanical ventilation: from basic techniques to new devices. J. Aerosol Med. Pulm. Drug Deliv. 21(1), 45–60 (2008).
  • Multi-step bundle eradicates VAPs. Hosp. Peer Rev. 35(11), 125–126 (2011).
  • Dhand R, Sohal H. Pulmonary drug delivery system for inhalation therapy in mechanically ventilated patients. Expert Rev. Med. Devices 5(1), 9–18 (2008).
  • Klastersky J, Daneau D, Henri A. Comparative study of tobramycin and gentamicin. Acta Clin. Belg. 27(5), 589–599 (1972).
  • Hallal A, Cohn SM, Namias N et al. Aerosolized tobramycin in the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a pilot study. Surg. Infect. (Larchmt) 8(1), 73–82 (2007).
  • Lu Q, Yang J, Liu Z, Gutierrez C, Aymard G, Rouby JJ; Nebulized Antibiotics Study Group. Nebulized ceftazidime and amikacin in ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 184(1), 106–115 (2011).
  • Ames NJ. Evidence to support tooth brushing in critically ill patients. Am. J. Crit. Care 20(3), 242–250 (2011).
  • Pines A, Raafat H, Siddiqui GM, Greenfield JS. Treatment of severe pseudomonas infections of the bronchi. Br. Med. J. 1(5697), 663–665 (1970).
  • Mohr AM, Sifri ZC, Horng HS et al. Use of aerosolized aminoglycosides in the treatment of Gram-negative ventilator-associated pneumonia. Surg. Infect. (Larchmt) 8(3), 349–357 (2007).
  • Czosnowski QA, Wood GC, Magnotti LJ et al. Adjunctive aerosolized antibiotics for treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Pharmacotherapy 29(9), 1054–1060 (2009).
  • Pines A, Raafat H, Plucinski K. Gentamicin and colistin in chronic purulent bronchial infections. Br. Med. J. 2(5551), 543–545 (1967).
  • McCall CY, Spruill WJ, Wade WE. The use of aerosolized tobramycin in the treatment of a resistant pseudomonal pneumonitis. Ther. Drug Monit. 11(6), 692–695 (1989).
  • Sorensen VJ, Horst HM, Obeid FN, Bivins BA. Endotracheal aminoglycosides in gram negative pneumonia. A preliminary report. Am. Surg. 52(7), 391–394 (1986).
  • Stillwell PC, Kearns GL, Jacobs RF. Endotracheal tobramycin in Gram-negative pneumonitis. Drug Intell. Clin. Pharm. 22(7–8), 577–581 (1988).
  • Kwa AL, Loh C, Low JG, Kurup A, Tam VH. Nebulized colistin in the treatment of pneumonia due to multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(5), 754–757 (2005).
  • Berlana D, Llop JM, Fort E, Badia MB, Jódar R. Use of colistin in the treatment of multiple-drug-resistant Gram-negative infections. Am. J. Health. Syst. Pharm. 62(1), 39–47 (2005).
  • Motaouakkil S, Charra B, Hachimi A et al. Colistin and rifampicin in the treatment of nosocomial infections from multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii. J. Infect. 53(4), 274–278 (2006).
  • Falagas ME, Kouranos VD, Michalopoulos A, Rodopoulou SP, Athanasoulia AP, Karageorgopoulos DE. Inadequate statistical power of published comparative cohort studies on ventilator-associated pneumonia to detect mortality differences. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50(4), 468–472 (2010).
  • Hamer DH. Treatment of nosocomial pneumonia and tracheobronchitis caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa with aerosolized colistin. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162(1), 328–330 (2000).
  • Horianopoulou M, Lambropoulos S, Papafragas E, Falagas ME. Effect of aerosolized colistin on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in bronchial secretions of patients without cystic fibrosis. J. Chemother. 17(5), 536–538 (2005).
  • Sobieszczyk ME, Furuya EY, Hay CM et al. Combination therapy with polymyxin B for the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative respiratory tract infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 54(2), 566–569 (2004).
  • Michalopoulos AS, Tsiodras S, Rellos K, Mentzelopoulos S, Falagas ME. Colistin treatment in patients with ICU-acquired infections caused by multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria: the renaissance of an old antibiotic. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 11(2), 115–121 (2005).
  • Korbila IP, Michalopoulos A, Rafailidis PI, Nikita D, Samonis G, Falagas ME. Inhaled colistin as adjunctive therapy to intravenous colistin for the treatment of microbiologically documented ventilator-associated pneumonia: a comparative cohort study. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 16(8), 1230–1236 (2010).
  • Michel F, Franceschini B, Berger P et al. Early antibiotic treatment for BAL-confirmed ventilator-associated pneumonia: a role for routine endotracheal aspirate cultures. Chest 127(2), 589–597 (2005).
  • Depuydt PO, Vandijck DM, Bekaert MA et al. Determinants and impact of multidrug antibiotic resistance in pathogens causing ventilator-associated-pneumonia. Crit. Care 12(6), R142 (2008).
  • Yang K, Zhuo H, Guglielmo BJ, Wiener-Kronish J. Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia: the role of endotracheal aspirate surveillance cultures. Ann. Pharmacother. 43(1), 28–35 (2009).
  • Hayon J, Figliolini C, Combes A et al. Role of serial routine microbiologic culture results in the initial management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165(1), 41–46 (2002).
  • Morell EA, Balkin DM. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a pervasive pathogen highlights the need for new antimicrobial development. Yale J. Biol. Med. 83(4), 223–233 (2010).
  • Diaz O, Diaz E, Rello J. Risk factors for pneumonia in the intubated patient. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 17(4), 697–705 (2003).
  • Kollef MH, Skubas NJ, Sundt TM. A randomized clinical trial of continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions in cardiac surgery patients. Chest 116(5), 1339–1346 (1999).
  • Kollef KE, Schramm GE, Wills AR, Reichley RM, Micek ST, Kollef MH. Predictors of 30-day mortality and hospital costs in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia attributed to potentially antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Chest 134(2), 281–287 (2008).
  • Trouillet JL, Chastre J, Vuagnat A et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by potentially drug-resistant bacteria. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157(2), 531–539 (1998).
  • Ibrahim EH, Ward S, Sherman G, Schaiff R, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. Experience with a clinical guideline for the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit. Care Med. 29(6), 1109–1115 (2001).
  • Ibrahim EH, Tracy L, Hill C, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. The occurrence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a community hospital: risk factors and clinical outcomes. Chest 120(2), 555–561 (2001).
  • Mahul P, Auboyer C, Jospe R et al. Prevention of nosocomial pneumonia in intubated patients: respective role of mechanical subglottic secretions drainage and stress ulcer prophylaxis. Intensive Care Med. 18(1), 20–25 (1992).
  • Muscedere J, Rewa O, McKechnie K, Jiang X, Laporta D, Heyland DK. Subglottic secretion drainage for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit. Care Med. 39(8), 1985–1991 (2011).
  • Shorr AF, Zilberberg MD, Kollef M. Cost–effectiveness analysis of a silver-coated endotracheal tube to reduce the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 30(8), 759–763 (2009).
  • DeRiso AJ 2nd, Ladowski JS, Dillon TA, Justice JW, Peterson AC. Chlorhexidine gluconate 0.12% oral rinse reduces the incidence of total nosocomial respiratory infection and nonprophylactic systemic antibiotic use in patients undergoing heart surgery. Chest 109(6), 1556–1561 (1996).
  • Segers P, Speekenbrink RG, Ubbink DT, van Ogtrop ML, de Mol BA. Prevention of nosocomial infection in cardiac surgery by decontamination of the nasopharynx and oropharynx with chlorhexidine gluconate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 296(20), 2460–2466 (2006).
  • Chlebicki MP, Safdar N. Topical chlorhexidine for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Crit. Care Med. 35(2), 595–602 (2007).
  • Tantipong H, Morkchareonpong C, Jaiyindee S, Thamlikitkul V. Randomized controlled trial and meta-analysis of oral decontamination with 2% chlorhexidine solution for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 29(2), 131–136 (2008).
  • Babcock HM, Zack JE, Garrison T et al. An educational intervention to reduce ventilator-associated pneumonia in an integrated health system: a comparison of effects. Chest 125(6), 2224–2231 (2004).
  • Zack JE, Garrison T, Trovillion E et al. Effect of an education program aimed at reducing the occurrence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit. Care Med. 30(11), 2407–2412 (2002).
  • Pogorzelska M, Stone PW, Furuya EY et al. Impact of the ventilator bundle on ventilator-associated pneumonia in intensive care unit. Int. J. Qual. Health Care 23(5), 538–544 (2011).
  • Torres A, el-Ebiary M, González J et al. Gastric and pharyngeal flora in nosocomial pneumonia acquired during mechanical ventilation. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148(2), 352–357 (1993).
  • Kollef MH. Prevention of hospital-associated pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit. Care Med. 32(6), 1396–1405 (2004).
  • Weiss CH, Moazed F, McEvoy CA et al. Prompting physicians to address a daily checklist and process of care and clinical outcomes: a single-site study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 184(6), 680–686 (2011).
  • Pronovost P, Needham D, Berenholtz S et al. An intervention to decrease catheter-related bloodstream infections in the ICU. N. Engl. J. Med. 355(26), 2725–2732 (2006).
  • Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O’Connor MF, Hall JB. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N. Engl. J. Med. 342(20), 1471–1477 (2000).
  • IHI proposes six patient safety goals to prevent 100,000 annual deaths. Qual. Lett. Healthc Lead 17(1), 11–12 (2005).
  • Girard TD, Kress JP, Fuchs BD et al. Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (Awakening and Breathing Controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 371(9607), 126–134 (2008).
  • Schweickert WD, Gehlbach BK, Pohlman AS, Hall JB, Kress JP. Daily interruption of sedative infusions and complications of critical illness in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit. Care Med. 32(6), 1272–1276 (2004).
  • Dries DJ, McGonigal MD, Malian MS, Bor BJ, Sullivan C. Protocol-driven ventilator weaning reduces use of mechanical ventilation, rate of early reintubation, and ventilator-associated pneumonia. J. Trauma 56(5), 943–951; discussion 951 (2004).
  • Torres A, el-Ebiary M, Soler N, Montón C, González J, Puig de la Bellacasa J. The role of the gastric reservoir in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Clin. Intensive Care 6(4), 174–180 (1995).
  • Nava S, Hill N. Non-invasive ventilation in acute respiratory failure. Lancet 374(9685), 250–259 (2009).
  • Nava S, Hill N. Non-invasive ventilation in acute respiratory failure. Lancet 374(9685), 250–259 (2009).
  • Plant PK, Owen JL, Elliott MW. Early use of non-invasive ventilation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on general respiratory wards: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 355(9219), 1931–1935 (2000).
  • Masip J, Roque M, Sánchez B, Fernández R, Subirana M, Expósito JA. Noninvasive ventilation in acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 294(24), 3124–3130 (2005).
  • Rocker GM, Mackenzie MG, Williams B, Logan PM. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: successful outcome in patients with acute lung injury/ARDS. Chest 115(1), 173–177 (1999).
  • Cheung TM, Yam LY, So LK et al. Effectiveness of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in the treatment of acute respiratory failure in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chest 126(3), 845–850 (2004).
  • Nava S, Ambrosino N, Clini E et al. Noninvasive mechanical ventilation in the weaning of patients with respiratory failure due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 128(9), 721–728 (1998).
  • Kubicka ZJ, Limauro J, Darnall RA. Heated, humidified high-flow nasal cannula therapy: yet another way to deliver continuous positive airway pressure? Pediatrics 121(1), 82–88 (2008).
  • Sztrymf B, Messika J, Mayot T, Lenglet H, Dreyfuss D, Ricard JD. Impact of high-flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy on intensive care unit patients with acute respiratory failure: a prospective observational study. J. Crit. Care 27(3), 324.e9–324.13 (2012).
  • National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2003, issued August 2003. Am. J. Infect Control 31(8), 481–498 (2003).
  • Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr et al.; Infectious Diseases Society of America; Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44(2), 159–177 (2007).
  • Jones RN. Resistance patterns among nosocomial pathogens: trends over the past few years. Chest 119(Suppl. 2), 397S–404S (2001)
  • Pakyz AL, MacDougall C, Oinonen M, Polk RE. Trends in antibacterial use in US academic health centers: 2002 to 2006. Arch. Intern. Med. 168(20), 2254–2260 (2008).
  • Edwards JE, McEwan NR, Wallace RJ. Adaptation to flavomycin in the ruminal bacterium, Prevotella bryantii. J. Appl. Microbiol. 104(6), 1617–1623 (2008).
  • Schentag JJ, Ballow CH, Fritz AL et al. Changes in antimicrobial agent usage resulting from interactions among clinical pharmacy, the infectious disease division, and the microbiology laboratory. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16(3), 255–264 (1993).
  • Carling P, Fung T, Killion A, Terrin N, Barza M. Favorable impact of a multidisciplinary antibiotic management program conducted during 7 years. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 24(9), 699–706 (2003).
  • LaRocco A Jr. Concurrent antibiotic review programs – a role for infectious diseases specialists at small community hospitals. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37(5), 742–743 (2003).
  • Ansari F, Gray K, Nathwani D et al. Outcomes of an intervention to improve hospital antibiotic prescribing: interrupted time series with segmented regression analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 52(5), 842–848 (2003).
  • Rüttimann S, Keck B, Hartmeier C, Maetzel A, Bucher HC. Long-term antibiotic cost savings from a comprehensive intervention program in a medical department of a university-affiliated teaching hospital. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38(3), 348–356 (2004).
  • Lutters M, Harbarth S, Janssens JP et al. Effect of a comprehensive, multidisciplinary, educational program on the use of antibiotics in a geriatric university hospital. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 52(1), 112–116 (2004).
  • Scheckler WE, Bennett JV. Antibiotic usage in seven community hospitals. JAMA 213(2), 264–267 (1970).
  • Doron S, Davidson LE. Antimicrobial stewardship. Mayo Clin. Proc. 86(11), 1113–1123 (2011).
  • Seligman SJ. Reduction in antibiotic costs by restricting use of an oral cephalosporin. Am. J. Med. 71(6), 941–944 (1981).
  • Britton HL, Schwinghammer TL, Romano MJ. Cost containment through restriction of cephalosporins. Am. J. Hosp. Pharm. 38(12), 1897–1900 (1981).
  • Hayman JN, Sbravati EC. Controlling cephalosporin and aminoglycoside costs through pharmacy and therapeutics committee restrictions. Am. J. Hosp. Pharm. 42(6), 1343–1347 (1985).
  • Solomon DH, Van Houten L, Glynn RJ et al. Academic detailing to improve use of broad-spectrum antibiotics at an academic medical center. Arch. Intern. Med. 161(15), 1897–1902 (2001).
  • Fraser GL, Stogsdill P, Dickens JD Jr, Wennberg DE, Smith RP Jr, Prato BS. Antibiotic optimization. An evaluation of patient safety and economic outcomes. Arch. Intern. Med. 157(15), 1689–1694 (1997).
  • Hermsen ED, Smith Shull S, Puumala SE, Rupp ME. Improvement in prescribing habits and economic outcomes associated with the introduction of a standardized approach for surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 29(5), 457–461 (2008).
  • Dellit TH, Chan JD, Skerrett SJ, Nathens AB. Development of a guideline for the management of ventilator-associated pneumonia based on local microbiologic findings and impact of the guideline on antimicrobial use practices. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 29(6), 525–533 (2008).
  • Lancaster JW, Lawrence KR, Fong JJ et al. Impact of an institution-specific hospital-acquired pneumonia protocol on the appropriateness of antibiotic therapy and patient outcomes. Pharmacotherapy 28(7), 852–862 (2008).
  • Agwu AL, Lee CK, Jain SK et al. A World Wide Web-based antimicrobial stewardship program improves efficiency, communication, and user satisfaction and reduces cost in a tertiary care pediatric medical center. Clin. Infect. Dis. 47(6), 747–753 (2008).
  • Bond CA, Raehl CL. Clinical and economic outcomes of pharmacist-managed antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgical patients. Am. J. Health. Syst. Pharm. 64(18), 1935–1942 (2007).
  • Kaki R, Elligsen M, Walker S, Simor A, Palmay L, Daneman N. Impact of antimicrobial stewardship in critical care: a systematic review. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 66(6), 1223–1230 (2011).
  • Craven DE, Steger KA. Nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated adult patients: epidemiology and prevention in 1996. Semin. Respir. Infect. 11(1), 32–53 (1996).

Websites

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.