The Importance of Conifers for Facilitation at Treeline: Comparing Biophysical Characteristics of Leeward Microsites in Whitebark Pine Communities

References Cited

• Alftine, K. J. , and Malanson, G. P. , 2004: Directional positive feedback and pattern at an alpine tree line. Journal of Vegetation Science , 15: 3–12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angel Munguía-Ross, M. , and Sosa, V. J. , 2008: Nurseplants vs. nurse objects: effects of woody plants and rocky cavities on the recruitment of the Pilosocereus leucocephalus columnar cactus. Annals of Botany , 101: 175–185.
   Google Scholar
• Bansal, S. , Reinhardt, K. , and Germino, M. J. , 2011: Linking carbon balance to establishment patterns: comparison of whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce seedlings along an herb cover exposure gradient at treeline. Plant Ecology , 212: 219–228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batllori, E. , Camarero, J. J. , Ninot, J. M. , and Gutiérrez, E. , 2009: Seedling recruitment, survival and facilitation in alpine Pinus uncinata tree line ecotones. Implications and potential responses to climate warming. Global Ecology and Biogeography , 18: 460–472.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister, D. , and Callaway, R. M. , 2006: Facilitation by Pinus flexilis during succession: a hierarchy of mechanisms benefits other plant species. Ecology , 87: 1816–1830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekker, M. F. , 2005: Positive feedback between tree establishment and patterns of subalpine forest advancement, Glacier National Park, M.T., U.S.A. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 37: 97–107.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bevan, A. , 1923: Summary of the geology of the Beartooth Mountains, Montana. Journal of Geology , 31: 441–465.
   Google Scholar
• Blakeslee, S. C. , 2012: Assessing Whitebark Pine Vigor and Facilitation Roles in the Alpine Treeline Ecotone. M.S. thesis, Department of Integrative Biology, University of Colorado Denver.
   Google Scholar
• Bliss, D. , and Smith, H. , 2006: Penetration of light into soil and its role in the control of seed germination. Plant, Cell & Environment , 8: 475–483.
   Google Scholar
• Breshears, D. D. , Nyhan, J. W. , Heil, C. E. , and Wilcox, B. P. , 1998: Effects of woody plants on microclimate in a semiarid woodland: soil temperature and evaporation in canopy and intercanopy patches. International Journal of Plant Sciences , 159: 1010–1017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooker, R. W. , Maestre, F. T. , Callaway, R. M. , Lortie, C. L. , Cavieres, L. A. , Kunstler, G. , Liancourt, P. , Tielbörger, K. , Travis, J. M. J. , Anthelme, F. , Armas, C. , Coll, L. , Corcket, E. , Delzon, S. , Forey, E. , Kikvidze, Z. , Olofsson, J. , Pugnaire, F. , Quiroz, C. L. , Saccone, P. , Schiffers, K. , Seifan, M. , Touzard, B. , and Michalet, R. , 2008: Facilitation in plant communities: the past, the present, and the future. Journal of Ecology , 96: 18–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruno, J. F. , Stachowicz, J. J. , and Bertness, M. D. , 2003: Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution , 18: 119–125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cairns, D. M. , and Malanson, G. P. , 1997: Environmental variables influencing the carbon balance at the alpine treeline: a modeling approach. Journal of Vegetation Science , 9: 679–692.
   Google Scholar
• Callaway, R. M. , 1998: Competition and facilitation on elevation gradients in subalpine forest of the northern Rocky Mountains, U.S.A. Oikos , 82: 561–573.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callaway, R. M. , Nadkarni, N. M. , and Mahall, B. E. , 1991: Facilitation and interference of Quercus douglasii on understory productivity in central California. Ecology , 72: 1484–1499.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callaway, R. M. , Brooker, R. W. , Choler, P. , Kikvidze, Z. , Lortie, C. J. , Michalet, R. , Paolini, L. , Pugnaire, F. I. , Newingham, B. , Aschehoug, E. T. , Armas, C. , Kikodze, D. , and Cook, B. J. , 2002: Positive interactions among alpine plants increase with stress. Nature , 417: 844–848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro, J. , Allen, C. D. , Molina-Morales, M. , Marañón-Jiménez, S. , Sánchez-Miranda, Á. , and Zamora, R. , 2011: Salvage logging versus the use of burnt wood as a nurse object to promote post-fire seedling establishment. Restoration Ecology , 19: 537–544.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers, J. C. , 2001: Pinus monophylla establishment in an expanding Pinus‐Juniperus woodland: Environmental conditions, facilitation and interacting factors. Journal of Vegetation Science , 12: 27–40.
   Google Scholar
• Christersson, L. , and Fircks, H. A.V. , 1988: Injuries to conifer seedlings caused by simulated summer frost and winter desiccation. Silva Fennica , 22: 195–201.
   Google Scholar
• Cui, M. , and Smith, W. K. , 1991: Photosynthesis, water relations and mortality in Abies lasiocarpa seedlings during natural establishment. Tree Physiology , 8: 37–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germino, M. J. , and Smith, W. K. , 1999: Sky exposure, crown architecture, and low-temperature photoinhibition in conifer seedlings at alpine treeline. Plant, Cell, & Environment , 22: 407–415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germino, M. J. , Smith, W. K. , and Resor, A. C. , 2002: Conifer seedling distribution and survival in an alpine-treeline ecotone. Plant Ecology , 162: 157–168.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of Canada, 2012: Order amending Schedule 1 to the Species at Risk Act. Canada Gazette Part II, Vol 146, No. 14, SOR/2012-113, <http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/orders/g2-14614i_e.pdf>, (accessed 20 June 2012).
   Google Scholar
• Hättenschwiler, S. , and Smith, W. K. , 1999: Seedling occurrence in alpine treeline conifers: a case study from the Central Rocky Mountains, USA. Acta Oecologica , 20: 219–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoch, G. , Popp, M. , and Körner, C. , 2002: Altitudinal increase of mobile carbon pools in Pinus cembra suggests sink limitation of growth at the Swiss treeline. Oikos , 98: 361–374.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holtmeier, F. K. , 2009: Mountain Timberlines: Ecology, Patchiness, and Dynamics. Second edition. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, Advances in Global Change Research 36.
   Google Scholar
• Holtmeier, F. K. , and Broll, G. , 1992: The influence of tree islands and microtopography on pedoecological conditions in the forest-alpine tundra ecotone on Niwot Ridge, Colorado Front Range, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research , 24: 216–228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchins, H. E. , and Lanner, R. M. , 1982: The central role of Clark's nutcracker in the dispersal and establishment of whitebark pine. Oecologia , 55: 192–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalberer, S. R. , Wisniewski, M. , and Arora, R. , 2006: Deacclimation and reacclimation of cold-hardy plants: current understanding and emerging concepts. Plant Science , 171: 3–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Körner, C. , 1998: A re-assessment of high elevation treeline positions and their explanation. Oecologia , 115: 445–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landhäusser, S. M. , Wein, R. W. , and Lange, P. , 1996: Gas exchange and growth of three Arctic tree-line tree species under different soil temperature and drought preconditioning regimes. Canadian Journal of Botany , 74: 686–693.
   Google Scholar
• Lesica, P. , 2002: A Flora of Glacier National Park, Montana. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lortie, C. J. , and Turkington, R. , 2008: Species-specific positive effects in an annual plant community. Oikos , 117: 1511–1521.
   Google Scholar
• Maher, E. L. , Germino, M. J. , and Hasselquist, N. J. , 2005: Interactive effects of tree and herb cover on survivorship, physiology, and microclimate of conifer seedlings at the alpine tree-line ecotone. Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 35: 567–574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maher, E. L. , and Germino, M. J. , 2006: Microsite differentiation among conifer species during seedling establishment at alpine treeline. Écoscience , 13: 334–341.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malanson, G. P. , Butler, D. R. , Fagre, D. B. , Walsh, S. J. , Tomback, D. F. , Daniels, L. D. , Resler, L. M. , Smith, W. K. , Weiss, D. J. , Peterson, D. L. , Bunn, A. G. , Hiemstra, C. A. , Liptzin, D. , Bourgeron, P. S. , Shen, Z. , and Millar, C. I. , 2007: Alpine treeline of western North America: linking organism-to-landscape dynamics. Physical Geography , 28: 378–396.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marr, J. W. , 1977: The development and movement of tree islands near the upper limit of tree growth in the southern Rocky Mountains. Ecology , 58: 1159–1164.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michalet, R. , Maalouf, J.-P. , Choler, P. , Clément, B. , Rosebery, D. , Royer, J.-M. , Schöb, C. , and Lortie, C. J. , 2015: Competition, facilitation and environmental severity shape the relationship between local and regional species richness in plant communities. Ecography , 38: 335–345.
   Google Scholar
• Moir, W. H. , Rochelle, S. G. , and Schoettle, A. W. , 1999: Microscale patterns of tree establishment near upper treeline, Snowy Range, Wyoming, USA. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 31: 379–388.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moyes, A. B. , Castanha, C. , Germino, M. J. , and Kueppers, L. M. , 2013: Warming and the dependence of limber pine (Pinus flexilis) establishment on summer soil moisture within and above its current elevation range. Oecologia , 171: 271–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nimlos, T. J. , McConnel, R. C. , and Pattie, D. L. , 1965: Soil temperature and moisture regimes in Montana alpine soils. Northwest Science , 39: 129–137.
   Google Scholar
• R Development Core Team, 2011: R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
   Google Scholar
• Resler, L. M. , 2006: Geomorphic controls of spatial pattern and process at alpine treeline. The Professional Geographer , 58: 124–138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resler, L. M. , and Tomback, D. F. , 2008: Blister rust prevalence in krummholz whitebark pine: implications for treeline dynamics, northern Rocky Mountains, Montana, U.S.A. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 40: 161–170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resler, L. M. , Butler, D. R. , and Malanson, G. P. , 2005: Topographic shelter and conifer establishment and mortality in an alpine environment, Glacier National Park, Montana. Physical Geography , 26: 112–125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resler, L. M. , Shao, Y. , Tomback, D. F. , and Malanson, G. P. , 2014: Predicting the functional role and occurrence of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) at alpine treeline: model accuracy and variable importance. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. doi http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2014.910072.
   Google Scholar
• Sakai, A. , and Okada, S. , 1971: Freezing resistance of conifers. Silvae Genetics , 20: 91–97.
   Google Scholar
• Seastedt, T. R. , and Adams, G. A. , 2001: Effects of mobile tree islands on alpine tundra soils. Ecology , 82: 8–17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiels, A. B. , and Sanford, R. L., Jr. , 2001: Soil nutrient differences between two krummholz-form tree species and adjacent alpine tundra. Geoderma , 102: 205–217.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, C. M. , Wilson, B. , Rasheed, S. , Walker, R. C. , Carolin, T. , and Shepherd, R. , 2008: Whitebark pine and white pine blister rust in the Rocky Mountains of Canada and northern Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 38: 982–985.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C. M. , Shepherd, B. , Gillies, C. , and Stuart-Smith, J. , 2013: Changes in blister rust infection and mortality in whitebark pine over time. Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 43: 90–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, E. K. , Resler, L. M. , Vance, E. A. , Carstensen, L. W. , and Kolivras, K. N. , 2011: Blister rust incidence in treeline whitebark pine, Glacier National Park, USA: environmental and topographic influences. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 43: 107–117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith-McKenna, E. K. , Resler, L. M. , Tomback, D. F. , Zhang, H. , and Malanson, G. P. , 2013: Topographic influences on the distribution of white pine blister rust in Pinus albicaulis treeline communities. Écoscience, 20: 215–229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith-McKenna, E. K. , Malanson, G. P. , Resler, L. M. , Carstensen, L. W. , Prisley, S. P. , and Tomback, D. F. , 2014: Cascading effects of feedbacks, disease, and climate change on alpine treeline dynamics. Environmental Modelling and Software , 62: 85–96.
   Google Scholar
• Soliveres, S. , Eldridge, D. J. , Maestre, F. T. , Bowker, M. A. , Tighe, M. , and Escudero, A. , 2011: Microhabitat amelioration and reduced competition among understory plants as drivers of facilitation across environmental gradients: towards a unifying framework. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics , 13: 247–258.
   Google Scholar
• Spittlehouse, D. L. , and Stathers, R. J. , 1990: Seedling Microclimate. Victoria, British Columbia: BC Ministry of Forests, Land Management Report, no. 65.
   Google Scholar
• Stachowicz, J. J. , 2001: Mutualism, facilitation, and the structure of ecological communities. Bioscience , 51: 235–246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens, G. C. , and Fox, J. F. , 1991: The causes of treeline. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics , 22: 177–191.
   Google Scholar
• Sthultz, C. M. , Gehring, C. A. , and Whitham, T. G. , 2007: Shifts from competition to facilitation between a foundation tree and a pioneer shrub across spatial and temporal scales in a semiarid woodland. New Phytologist , 173: 135–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sveinbjörnsson, B. , Kauhanen, H. , and Nordell, O. , 1996: Treeline ecology of mountain birch in the Torneträsk area. Ecological Bulletins , 45: 65–70.
   Google Scholar
• Tan, K. , 2005: Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis , Second edition. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor and Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Tomback, D. F. , 1978: Foraging strategies of Clark's nutcracker. Living Bird , 16: 123–161.
   Google Scholar
• Tomback, D. F. , 1982: Dispersal of whitebark pine seeds by Clark's nutcracker: a mutualism hypothesis. Journal of Animal Ecology , 51: 451–467.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomback, D. F. , 1986: Post-fire regeneration of krummholz whitebark pine: a consequence of nutcracker seed caching. Madrono , 33: 100–110.
   Google Scholar
• Tomback, D. F. , 2001: Clark's nutcracker: agent of regeneration. In Tomback, D. F. , Arno, S. F. , and Keane, R. E. (eds.), Whitebark Pine Communities: Ecology and Restoration. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 89–104.
   Google Scholar
• Tomback, D. F. , and Resler, L. M. , 2007: Invasive pathogens and alpine treeline: consequences for treeline dynamics. Physical Geography , 28: 397–418.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomback, D. F. , Chipman, K. G. , Resler, L. M. , Smith-McKenna, E. K. , and Smith, C. M. , 2014: Relative abundance and functional role of whitebark pine at treeline in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research , 46: 116–126.
   Google Scholar
• Tomback, D. F. , Resler, L. M. , Keane, R. E. , Pansing, E. R. , Andrade, A. J. , and Wagner, A. C. , 2016: Community structure, biodiversity, and ecosystem services in treeline whitebark pine communities: potential impacts from a non-native pathogen. Forests , 7(1): doi http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f7010021.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , 2011: Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants;12-month finding on a petition to list Pinus albicaulis as Endangered or Threatened with critical habitat. Federal Register , v. 76(136): 42631–42654.
   Google Scholar
• Van Miegroet, H. , Hysell, M. T. , and Johnson, A. D. , 2000: Soil microclimate and chemistry of spruce-fir tree islands in northern Utah. Soil Science Society of America Journal , 64: 1515–1525.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar