Chinese expert consensus on diagnosis and treatment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma: evidence from current practice and future perspectives

References

• Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Dikshit R, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: sources, methods and major patterns in GLOBOCAN 2012: globocan 2012. Int J Cancer. 2015;136(5):E359–E386. doi:10.1002/ijc.2921025220842
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Sarraf M, LeBlanc M, Giri PG, et al. Chemoradiotherapy versus radiotherapy in patients with advanced nasopharyngeal cancer: phase III randomized Intergroup study 0099. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 1998;16(4):1310–1317. doi:10.1200/JCO.1998.16.4.1310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang -L-L, Chen W-Q, Xue W-Q, et al. Global trends in incidence and mortality of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Cancer Lett. 2016;374(1):22–30. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2016.01.04026828135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forman D, Bray F, Brewster DH, et al. Cancer incidence in five continents. International Association of Cancer Registries Scientific Publications. 2013;164.
   Google Scholar
• Ng WT, Yuen KT, Au KH, Chan OSH, Lee AWM. Staging of nasopharyngeal carcinoma–the past, the present and the future. Oral Oncol. 2014;50(6):549–554. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2013.06.00323838426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L, Gallicchio L, Boyd-Lindsley K, et al. Alcohol consumption and the risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a systematic review. Nutr Cancer. 2009;61(1):1–15. doi:10.1080/0163558080237263319116871
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien YC, Chen JY, Liu MY, et al. Serologic markers of Epstein-Barr virus infection and nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Taiwanese men. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(26):1877–1882. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa01161011756578
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu MC, Garabrant DH, Huang TB, Henderson BE. Occupational and other non-dietary risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Guangzhou, China. Int J Cancer. 1990;45(6):1033–1039.2351484
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan JM, Wang XL, Xiang YB, Gao YT, Ross RK, Yu MC. Non-dietary risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Shanghai, China. Int J Cancer. 2000;85(3):364–369.10652428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo X, Johnson RC, Deng H, et al. Evaluation of nonviral risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma in a high-risk population of Southern China. Int J Cancer. 2009;124(12):2942–2947. doi:10.1002/ijc.2429319296536
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson LDR. Update on nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Head Neck Pathol. 2007;1(1):81–86. doi:10.1007/s12105-007-0012-720614287
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wan X, Wei L, Li H, et al. High pretreatment serum lactate dehydrogenase level correlates with disease relapse and predicts an inferior outcome in locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Eur J Cancer Oxf Engl 1990. 2013;49(10):2356–2364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chinese Committee for Staging of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma. Report on revision of the Chinese 1992 staging system for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Radiat Oncol. 2013;2(3):233–240.
   Google Scholar
• Edge SB, Compton CC. The American Joint Committee on Cancer: the 7th edition of the AJCC cancer staging manual and the future of TNM. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010;17(6):1471–1474. doi:10.1245/s10434-010-0985-420180029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis W. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: etiology and control. International Agency for Research on Cancer Scientific Publications. 1978;20.
   Google Scholar
• Ng WT, Lee AWM, Kan WK, et al. N-staging by magnetic resonance imaging for patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma: pattern of nodal involvement by radiological levels. Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2007;82(1):70–75. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2006.11.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yue D, Xu Y-F, Zhang F, et al. Is replacement of the supraclavicular fossa with the lower level classification based on magnetic resonance imaging beneficial in nasopharyngeal carcinoma? Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2014;113(1):108–114. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2014.08.036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sze H, Chan LLK, Ng WT, et al. Should all nasopharyngeal carcinoma with masticator space involvement be staged as T4? Oral Oncol. 2014;50(12):1188–1195. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2014.09.00125261296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan JJ, Ng WT, Zong JF, et al. Proposal for the 8th edition of the AJCC/UICC staging system for nasopharyngeal cancer in the era of intensity-modulated radiotherapy. Cancer. 2016;122(4):546–558. doi:10.1002/cncr.2979526588425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amin MB, Greene FL, Edge SB, et al. The Eighth Edition AJCC Cancer Staging Manual: continuing to build a bridge from a population-based to a more “personalized” approach to cancer staging: the Eighth Edition AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. CA Cancer J Clin. 2017;67(2):93–99. doi:10.3322/caac.2138828094848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesic JB, Fletcher GH, Goepfert H. Megavoltage irradiation of epithelial tumors of the nasopharynx. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1981;7(4):447–453.6788731
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei WI, Kwong DLW. Current management strategy of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Clin Exp Otorhinolaryngol. 2010;3(1):1–12. doi:10.3342/ceo.2010.3.1.120379395
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao Y, Zhu G, Lu J, et al. Is elective irradiation to the lower neck necessary for N0 nasopharyngeal carcinoma? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010;77(5):1397–1402. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.06.06220044215
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao -W-W, Han F, Lu T-X, Chen C-Y, Huang Y, Zhao C. Treatment outcomes after radiotherapy alone for patients with early-stage nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;74(4):1070–1076. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2008.09.00819231110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Su S-F, Han F, Zhao C, et al. Long-term outcomes of early-stage nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients treated with intensity-modulated radiotherapy alone. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2012;82(1):327–333. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2010.09.01121035959
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng SH, Tsai SY, Yen KL, et al. Concomitant radiotherapy and chemotherapy for early-stage nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2000;18(10):2040–2045. doi:10.1200/JCO.2000.18.10.2040
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Q-Y, Wen Y-F, Guo L, et al. Concurrent chemoradiotherapy vs radiotherapy alone in stage II nasopharyngeal carcinoma: phase III randomized trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103(23):1761–1770. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr43222056739
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendenhall WM, Werning JW, Pfister DG. Treatment of Head and Neck Cancer In: DeVita VT Jr, Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA, editors. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011:729–80.
   Google Scholar
• Chan ATC, Teo PML, Ngan RK, et al. Concurrent chemotherapy-radiotherapy compared with radiotherapy alone in locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: progression-free survival analysis of a phase III randomized trial. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2002;20(8):2038–2044. doi:10.1200/JCO.2002.08.149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan ATC, Leung SF, Ngan RKC, et al. Overall survival after concurrent cisplatin-radiotherapy compared with radiotherapy alone in locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(7):536–539. doi:10.1093/jnci/dji08415812080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu X, Huang PY, Peng PJ, et al. Long-term follow-up of a phase III study comparing radiotherapy with or without weekly oxaliplatin for locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol. 2013;24(8):2131–2136. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdt163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Zhao C, Peng P-J, et al. Phase III study comparing standard radiotherapy with or without weekly oxaliplatin in treatment of locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: preliminary results. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2005;23(33):8461–8468. doi:10.1200/JCO.2004.00.3863
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin J-C, Jan J-S, Hsu C-Y, Liang W-M, Jiang R-S, Wang W-Y. Phase III study of concurrent chemoradiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone for advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: positive effect on overall and progression-free survival. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2003;21(4):631–637. doi:10.1200/JCO.2003.06.158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wee J, Tan EH, Tai BC, et al. Randomized trial of radiotherapy versus concurrent chemoradiotherapy followed by adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with American Joint Committee on Cancer/International Union against cancer stage III and IV nasopharyngeal cancer of the endemic variety. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2005;23(27):6730–6738. doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.16.790
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Sun Y, Liang S-B, et al. Progress report of a randomized trial comparing long-term survival and late toxicity of concurrent chemoradiotherapy with adjuvant chemotherapy versus radiotherapy alone in patients with stage III to IVB nasopharyngeal carcinoma from endemic regions of China. Cancer. 2013;119(12):2230–2238. doi:10.1002/cncr.2804923576020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee AWM, Tung SY, Chua DTT, et al. Randomized trial of radiotherapy plus concurrent-adjuvant chemotherapy vs radiotherapy alone for regionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2010;102(15):1188–1198. doi:10.1093/jnci/djq25820634482
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee AWM, Tung SY, Chan ATC, et al. A randomized trial on addition of concurrent-adjuvant chemotherapy and/or accelerated fractionation for locally-advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2011;98(1):15–22. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2010.09.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dechaphunkul T, Pruegsanusak K, Sangthawan D, Sunpaweravong P. Concurrent chemoradiotherapy with carboplatin followed by carboplatin and 5-fluorouracil in locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Head Neck Oncol. 2011;3:30. doi:10.1186/1758-3284-3-3021639934
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Langendijk JA, Leemans CR, Buter J, Berkhof J, Slotman BJ. The additional value of chemotherapy to radiotherapy in locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a meta-analysis of the published literature. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2004;22(22):4604–4612. doi:10.1200/JCO.2004.10.074
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huncharek M, Kupelnick B. Combined chemoradiation versus radiation therapy alone in locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: results of a meta-analysis of 1,528 patients from six randomized trials. Am J Clin Oncol. 2002;25(3):219–223.12040275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchard P, Lee A, Marguet S, et al. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy in nasopharyngeal carcinoma: an update of the MAC-NPC meta-analysis. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(6):645–655. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(15)70126-925957714
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee AWM, Tung SY, Ngan RKC, et al. Factors contributing to the efficacy of concurrent-adjuvant chemotherapy for locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: combined analyses of NPC-9901 and NPC-9902 trials. Eur J Cancer Oxf Engl 1990. 2011;47(5):656–666.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loong HH, Ma BBY, Leung S-F, et al. Prognostic significance of the total dose of cisplatin administered during concurrent chemoradiotherapy in patients with locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2012;104(3):300–304. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2011.12.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang H, Wei-Xiong X, Xing L, Sun R, Zeng Q, Si-Wei L. Concurrent chemoradiotherapy with 3-weekly versus weekly cisplatin in patients with locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a phase 3 multicentre randomised controlled trial (ChiCTR-TRC-12001979). J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2017;15(35):6006. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.35.15_suppl.6006
   Google Scholar
• Chen L, Hu C-S, Chen X-Z, et al. Concurrent chemoradiotherapy plus adjuvant chemotherapy versus concurrent chemoradiotherapy alone in patients with locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a phase 3 multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(2):163–171. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70320-522154591
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu T, Shen C, Ou X, He X, Ying H, Hu C. The role of adjuvant chemotherapy in nasopharyngeal carcinoma with bulky neck lymph nodes in the era of IMRT. Oncotarget. 2016;7(15):21013–21022. doi:10.18632/oncotarget.784926942700
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bae WK, Hwang JE, Shim HJ, et al. Phase II study of docetaxel, cisplatin, and 5-FU induction chemotherapy followed by chemoradiotherapy in locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal cancer. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2010;65(3):589–595. doi:10.1007/s00280-009-1152-019830427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim AM, Corry J, Collins M, et al. A phase II study of induction carboplatin and gemcitabine followed by chemoradiotherapy for the treatment of locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Oral Oncol. 2013;49(5):468–474. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2012.12.01223369852
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hui EP, Ma BB, Leung SF, et al. Randomized phase II trial of concurrent cisplatin-radiotherapy with or without neoadjuvant docetaxel and cisplatin in advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2009;27(2):242–249. doi:10.1200/JCO.2008.18.1545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan T, Lim W-T, Fong K-W, et al. Concurrent chemo-radiation with or without induction gemcitabine, Carboplatin, and Paclitaxel: a randomized, phase 2/3 trial in locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2015;91(5):952–960. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2015.01.00225832687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fountzilas G, Ciuleanu E, Bobos M, et al. Induction chemotherapy followed by concomitant radiotherapy and weekly cisplatin versus the same concomitant chemoradiotherapy in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a randomized phase II study conducted by the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group (HeCOG) with biomarker evaluation. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol. 2012;23(2):427–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee AWM, Ngan RKC, Tung SY, et al. Preliminary results of trial NPC-0501 evaluating the therapeutic gain by changing from concurrent-adjuvant to induction-concurrent chemoradiotherapy, changing from fluorouracil to capecitabine, and changing from conventional to accelerated radiotherapy fractionation in patients with locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Cancer. 2015;121(8):1328–1338. doi:10.1002/cncr.2920825529384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li W-F, Chen L, Sun Y, Ma J. Induction chemotherapy for locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Chin J Cancer. 2016;35(1):94. doi:10.1186/s40880-016-0157-427846913
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ma BBY, Poon TCW, To KF, et al. Prognostic significance of tumor angiogenesis, Ki 67, p53 oncoprotein, epidermal growth factor receptor and HER2 receptor protein expression in undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma–a prospective study. Head Neck. 2003;25(10):864–872. doi:10.1002/hed.1030712966511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chua DTT, Nicholls JM, Sham JST, Au GKH. Prognostic value of epidermal growth factor receptor expression in patients with advanced stage nasopharyngeal carcinoma treated with induction chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;59(1):11–20. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2003.10.038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leong J-L, Loh KS, Putti TC, Goh BC, Tan LKS. Epidermal growth factor receptor in undifferentiated carcinoma of the nasopharynx. Laryngoscope. 2004;114(1):153–157. doi:10.1097/00005537-200401000-0002914710013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang SM, Bock JM, Harari PM. Epidermal growth factor receptor blockade with C225 modulates proliferation, apoptosis, and radiosensitivity in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck. Cancer Res. 1999;59(8):1935–1940.10213503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sung FL, Poon TCW, Hui EP, et al. Antitumor effect and enhancement of cytotoxic drug activity by cetuximab in nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells. Vivo Athens Greece. 2005;19(1):237–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu T, Zhao C, Chen C, et al. An open, multicenter clinical study on cetuximab combined with intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) plus concurrent chemotherapy in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC): preliminary report. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(15_suppl):5577. doi:10.1200/jco.2010.28.15_suppl.5577
   Google Scholar
• Chen C-Y, Zhao C, Gao L, et al. An open-labeled, multicentric clinical study of cetuximab combined with intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) plus concurrent chemotherapy in locoregionally advanced (LA) nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC): A 2-year follow-up report. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(15_suppl):5535.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma BBY, Kam MKM, Leung SF, et al. A phase II study of concurrent cetuximab-cisplatin and intensity-modulated radiotherapy in locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol. 2012;23(5):1287–1292. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdr401
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng H-X, Guo S-P, Li G-R, et al. Toxicity of concurrent chemoradiotherapy with cetuximab for locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Med Oncol Northwood Lond Engl. 2014;31(9):170. doi:10.1007/s12032-014-0170-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niu X, Hu C, Kong L. Experience with combination of cetuximab plus intensity-modulated radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy for locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2013;139(6):1063–1071. doi:10.1007/s00432-013-1419-z23525586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He X, Xu J, Guo W, Jiang X, Wang X, Zong D. Cetuximab in combination with chemoradiation after induction chemotherapy of locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: preliminary results. Future Oncol Lond Engl. 2013;9(10):1459–1467. doi:10.2217/fon.13.151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee NY, Zhang Q, Pfister DG, et al. Addition of bevacizumab to standard chemoradiation for locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma (RTOG 0615): a phase 2 multi-institutional trial. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(2):172–180. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70303-522178121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pow EHN, Kwong DLW, McMillan AS, et al. Xerostomia and quality of life after intensity-modulated radiotherapy vs. conventional radiotherapy for early-stage nasopharyngeal carcinoma: initial report on a randomized controlled clinical trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006;66(4):981–991. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2006.06.01317145528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee AWM, Ng WT, Chan LLK, et al. Evolution of treatment for nasopharyngeal cancer–success and setback in the intensity-modulated radiotherapy era. Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2014;110(3):377–384. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2014.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng G, Wang T, Yang K-Y, et al. A prospective, randomized study comparing outcomes and toxicities of intensity-modulated radiotherapy vs. conventional two-dimensional radiotherapy for the treatment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2012;104(3):286–293. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2012.08.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun X, Su S, Chen C, et al. Long-term outcomes of intensity-modulated radiotherapy for 868 patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma: an analysis of survival and treatment toxicities. Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2014;110(3):398–403. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2013.10.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin S, Pan J, Han L, et al. Update report of nasopharyngeal carcinoma treated with reduced-volume intensity-modulated radiation therapy and hypothesis of the optimal margin. Radiother Oncol J Eur Soc Ther Radiol Oncol. 2014;110(3):385–389. doi:10.1016/j.radonc.2014.01.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin T, Zhang Q, Jiang F, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy with different dose regimens of docetaxel, cisplatin and fluorouracil (TPF) for locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a retrospective study. Oncotarget. 2017;8:59. doi:10.18632/oncotarget.21992
   Google Scholar
• Sun Y, Li W-F, Chen N-Y, et al. Induction chemotherapy plus concurrent chemoradiotherapy versus concurrent chemoradiotherapy alone in locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a phase 3, multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(11):1509–1520. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(16)30410-727686945
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner MR, Hershock DM, Blajman CR, et al. Cisplatin and fluorouracil alone or with docetaxel in head and neck cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(17):1705–1715. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa07095617960013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vikram B, Strong EW, Shah JP, et al. Intraoperative radiotherapy in patients with recurrent head and neck cancer. Am J Surg. 1985;150(4):485–487.4051112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen CY, Han F, Zhao C, et al. Treatment results and late complications of 556 patients with locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma treated with radiotherapy alone. Br J Radiol. 2009;82(978):452–458. doi:10.1259/bjr/7281324619451314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koutcher L, Lee N, Zelefsky M, et al. Reirradiation of locally recurrent nasopharynx cancer with external beam radiotherapy with or without brachytherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010;76(1):130–137. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.01.05519467802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh JC-H, Hsu C-L, Ng S-H, et al. Gemcitabine plus cisplatin for patients with recurrent or metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Taiwan: a multicenter prospective Phase II trial. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2015;45(9):819–827. doi:10.1093/jjco/hyv08326056323
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Huang Y, Hong S, et al. Gemcitabine plus cisplatin versus fluorouracil plus cisplatin in recurrent or metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a multicentre, randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet Lond Engl. 2016;388(10054):1883–1892. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31388-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samlowski WE, Moon J, Kuebler JP, et al. Evaluation of the combination of docetaxel/carboplatin in patients with metastatic or recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN): a Southwest Oncology Group Phase II study. Cancer Invest. 2007;25(3):182–188. doi:10.1080/0735790070120906117530488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan EH, Khoo KS, Wee J, et al. Phase II trial of a paclitaxel and carboplatin combination in Asian patients with metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol. 1999;10(2):235–237. doi:10.1023/A:1008390929826
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang TL, Tan YO. Cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil continuous infusion for metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1991;20(5):601–603.1781642
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen C, Wang F, An X, et al. Triplet combination with paclitaxel, cisplatin and 5-FU is effective in metastatic and/or recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2013;71(2):371–378. doi:10.1007/s00280-012-2020-x23143190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ji JH, Korean Cancer Study Group (KCSG), Yun T, et al. A prospective multicentre phase II study of cisplatin and weekly docetaxel as first-line treatment for recurrent or metastatic nasopharyngeal cancer (KCSG HN07-01). Eur J Cancer Oxf Engl 1990. 2012;48(17):3198–3204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin Y, Shi Y-X, Cai X-Y, et al. Comparison of five cisplatin-based regimens frequently used as the first-line protocols in metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2012;138(10):1717–1725. doi:10.1007/s00432-012-1219-x22684794
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Y-H, Wang F-H, Jiang W-Q, et al. Phase II study of capecitabine and cisplatin combination as first-line chemotherapy in Chinese patients with metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2008;62(3):539–544. doi:10.1007/s00280-007-0641-218172651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma BBY, Hui EP, Wong SCC, et al. Multicenter phase II study of gemcitabine and oxaliplatin in advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma–correlation with excision repair cross-complementing-1 polymorphisms. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol. 2009;20(11):1854–1859. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdp065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen C, Wang F, Wang Z, et al. Salvage gemcitabine-vinorelbine chemotherapy in patients with metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma pretreated with platinum-based chemotherapy. Oral Oncol. 2012;48(11):1146–1151. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2012.05.02122748450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Zhang Y, Huang P-Y, Xu F, Peng P-J, Guan -Z-Z. Phase II clinical study of gemcitabine in the treatment of patients with advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma after the failure of platinum-based chemotherapy. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2008;61(1):33–38. doi:10.1007/s00280-007-0441-817909810
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chua DTT, Sham JST, Au GKH. A phase II study of capecitabine in patients with recurrent and metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma pretreated with platinum-based chemotherapy. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(4):361–366.12676255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ngeow J, Lim WT, Leong SS, et al. Docetaxel is effective in heavily pretreated patients with disseminated nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol. 2011;22(3):718–722. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdq425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan ATC, Hsu -M-M, Goh BC, et al. Multicenter, phase II study of cetuximab in combination with carboplatin in patients with recurrent or metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2005;23(15):3568–3576. doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.02.147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu T, Ou X, Shen C, Hu C. Cetuximab in combination with chemoradiotherapy in the treatment of recurrent and/or metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Anticancer Drugs. 2016;27(1):66–70. doi:10.1097/CAD.000000000000029426352217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim W-T, Ng Q-S, Ivy P, et al. A Phase II study of pazopanib in Asian patients with recurrent/metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res Off J Am Assoc Cancer Res. 2011;17(16):5481–5489. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-10-3409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu C, Lee S-H, Ejadi S, et al. Safety and antitumor activity of pembrolizumab in patients with programmed death-ligand 1-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma: results of the KEYNOTE-028 study. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2017;35(36):4050–4056. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.73.3675
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delord J-P, Antoine Hollebecque JP, De Boer J, De Greve Jean-Pascal H, Leidner RS. An open-label, multicohort, phase I/II study to evaluate nivolumab in patients with virus-associated tumors (CheckMate 358): efficacy and safety in recurrent or metastatic (R/M) nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). J Clin Oncol. 2017;35(15_suppl):6025. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.35.15_suppl.6025
   Google Scholar
• Ma BBY, Lim W-T, Goh B-C, et al. Antitumor activity of nivolumab in recurrent and metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma: an international, multicenter study of the mayo clinic phase 2 consortium (NCI-9742). J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(14):1412–1418. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.77.038829584545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar